Acacia auriculiformis (northern black wattle)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.
Preferred Common Name
- northern black wattle
Other Scientific Names
- Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex Benth., orth. var.
- Acacia moniliformis Griseb.
- Racosperma auriculiforme (A. Cunn. ex Benth.) Pedley
International Common Names
- English: Australian babul; Australian wattle; coast wattle; ear leaf acacia; earpod black wattle; Papua wattle; Papuan wattle
- French: acacia auriculé
- Chinese: da ye xiang si
Local Common Names
- Australia: black wattle; Darwin black wattle; ear-pod wattle; tan wattle
- Cambodia: smach’té:hs
- Cook Islands: akasia
- India: akashmoni; Australian babul; kasia; sonajhuri
- Indonesia: ki hia
- Malaysia: akasia kuning
- Micronesia, Federated states of: tuhkehn pwelmwahu
- Papua New Guinea: ngarai; unar
- Philippines: auri; Japanese acacia
- Thailand: krathin-narong
- USA: earleaf acacoa
EPPO code
- ACAAF (Acacia auriculaeformis)
Trade name
- northern black wattle
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. auriculiformis is a tree from the legume family that has been introduced into tropical and subtropical areas as an ornamental, for reforestation, soil improvement and for its wood and pulp (PROTA, 2016).). In Florida, USA, A. auriculiformis is a category 1 alien plant (Langeland and Burks, 1998), and it is prohibited in Miami-Dade County (PROTA, 2016). It is listed as invasive in Asia (Bangladesh, Singapore), Africa (Comoros, Mayotte, Tanzania), North America (Florida, USA), the Caribbean (Bahamas) and Oceania (Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam) (Islam, 2002; SE-EEPC, 2002; Tan and Tan, 2002; Kotiluoto et al., 2009; PIER, 2016. Space and Flynn (2000) list it among species that are invasive elsewhere and are invasive or potentially invasive on the Pacific island of Chuuk. A. auriculiformis is presently rare or uncommon in American Samoa but was listed among those naturalized species considered invasive elsewhere and classed as common or weedy (Space and Flynn, 2000). The species is also listed as a category 2 invasive plant species in the Bahamas (BEST Commission, 2003). Islam (2002) reports that following recent introduction of this species to Bangladesh, A. auriculiformis germinates naturally in plantation forests and prevents the germination of native species. It is one of 17 plant species named on a preliminary list of invasive alien species for Singapore (Tan and Tan, 2002). Starr et al. (2003) recommended the eradication of the species in Hawaii, USA, to prevent its invasion.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Mimosoideae
- Genus: Acacia
- Species: Acacia auriculiformis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageAs historically defined, Acacia (family Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae) represented a cosmopolitan genus of 1200-1300 species contained in three subgenera: Acacia, Aculeiferum and Phyllodineae (Maslin, 1995). A. auriculiformis was in subgenus Phyllodineae, a group containing in excess of 900 species (Maslin and McDonald, 1996). Some authors used Heterophyllum instead of Phyllodineae as the name for the last subgenus (Mabberley, 1997). In its most recent circumscription, the genus Acacia contains seven subgenera, and A. auriculiformis is part of the subgenus Juliflorae (Benth.) Maiden & Betche.
Pedley (1986) proposed a classification in which Acacia was formally subdivided into three genera, namely Acacia, Senegalia and Racosperma. Most botanists did not adopt Pedley's 1986 classification, principally because of insufficient evidence to support these changes (Chappill and Maslin, 1995). However, the proposed nomenclature has occasionally been used by authors and there are citations in the references to Racosperma auriculiforme (syn. A. auriculiformis). More recently, molecular evidence supports the polyphyletic nature of “Acacia”, recognizing five lineages: Acacia, Acaciella, Mariosousa, Senegalia and Vachellia (Maslin et al., 2003, Kyalangalilwa et al., 2013). The Australian species (including A. auriculiformis) retain the genus name Acacia, while African species in this classification were renamed as Vachellia in 2005.
Acacia auriculiformis was published in Hooker's London J. Bot. 1: 377 (1842). The species epithet is derived from the Latin `auricula', meaning external ear of animals, and `forma', meaning form, figure or shape, in allusion to the shape of the legume.
Description
Top of pageOn favourable sites in its natural habitat A. auriculiformis grows 25-35 m tall with a straight bole dominant for a greater part of tree height. More commonly it is 8-20 m tall and rarely a shrub 3-5 m, heavily branched and with a short bole. The bark is grey or brown, sometimes blackened at the base, smooth in young trees, becoming rough and longitudinally fissured with age (Doran and Turnbull, 1997; Turnbull and Awang, 1997). The phyllodes are falcate, 8-20 cm long and 1.0-4.5 cm wide, glabrous, greyish-green and thinly textured. There are three prominent longitudinal veins running together towards the lower margin or in the middle near the base, with many fine, crowded secondary veins, and a distinct gland at the base of the phyllode (Pedley, 1975, 1978; Maslin and McDonald, 1996). The inflorescence is an axillary, somewhat interrupted spike to 8.5 cm long in pairs in the upper axils. Flowers are light-golden in colour, 5-merous, bisexual, tiny, sessile, fragrant; calyx tubular, up to 0.1 cm long, shortly lobed, glabrous; corolla to 0.2 cm long; stamens many, about 0.3 cm long; ovary densely pubescent. The pods are strongly curved to form an open coil, flat, flexible but hard, rather woody, glaucous, transversely veined with undulate margins and are about 6.5 cm long by 1.5 cm wide. They are initially straight or curved, but on maturity become twisted and irregularly coiled. The shiny black seeds, held transversely in the pod, are broadly ovate to elliptical, 0.4-0.6 cm long by 0.3-0.4 cm wide, and each is encircled by a long red, yellow or orange funicle; areole large, almost enclosed.
Distribution
Top of pageNatural stands of A. auriculiformis are found in Australia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia (PROTA, 2016). In Australia it occurs on Cape York Peninsula and in Torres Strait, Queensland, and in the north of the Northern Territory including several off-shore islands (Boland et al., 1990). In Papua New Guinea it occurs in the Central and Western Provinces, and extends into Irian Jaya (Papua Barat) and the Kai Islands of Indonesia. It is naturalised in Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America and Oceania; see Distribution Table for details (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; PIER, 2016; PROTA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016; WorldWideWattle, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Benin | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also cultivated | ||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also cultivated | ||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | 1920 | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Sudan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated for fuelwood | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Asia |
||||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1984 | |||||
Brunei | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | ||||||
India | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Bihar | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Delhi | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Goa | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Haryana | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Sikkim | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Tripura | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Indonesia | Present, Few occurrences | Native | ||||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Native | ||||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | Native | ||||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Macau | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
-Sabah | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | 1935 | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
North America |
||||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Roadside | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | Canal Area | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Oceania |
||||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Australia | Present | Native | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Native | Planted | |||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | ||||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Ornamental | |||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | ||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Mangaia and Rarotonga Islands. Also cultivated | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Fefan, Tol, Weno and Yap Islands. Invasive and cultivated in Kosrae and Pohnpei Islands | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also cultivated | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also cultivated | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Rota and Saipan Islands. Also cultivated | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive and cultivated in Angaur, Babeldaob and Kayangel Islands. Introduced and cultivated on Tobi, Koror, Malakal, Ngercheu, Ngerkebesang and Peleliu Islands | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | Also cultivated | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Also cultivated | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | |||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Also cultivated | |||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
South America |
||||||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Bahia coastal forests, Bahia interior forests, Serra do Mar coastal forests | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Planted | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageA. auriculiformis was introduced about 50 years ago in Africa (PROTA, 2016). It has been present since 1932 in Florida, USA, where it was introduced to be used as an ornamental. It was introduced to Singapore from Australia in 1890, also as an ornamental. It was introduced to India from Australia for forestry to be grown in monoculture energy plantations (India Biodiversity, 2016).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
USA | 1932 | Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Gordon (1998) | In Florida | ||
Singapore | Australia | 1890 | Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Nghiem et al. (2015) | Dispersed by birds |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageA. auriculiformis is a tree that has been extensively introduced across the tropics. Several countries state that it is being monitored in anticipation that it may become invasive following news of its invasiveness in Florida, USA. Its desirability as a wood/pulp tree, and its use for reforestation and as an ornamental make it a tree with a high risk of introduction. Although is reported as not invading closed canopy forest, its rapid growth in open areas can hinder native revegetation (Encyclopedia of Life, 2016).
Habitat
Top of pageA. auriculiformis occurs in the lowland tropics, growing naturally in narrow belts along river banks, where it may be dominant or one of the principal species. It also occurs in small pockets in depressions and in open-forest dominated by various eucalypts and acacias. It is also found in littoral rain forest behind either mangroves or coastal dunes. On the Oriomo Plateau of Papua New Guinea this species is common on the floodplains and levees of Bensbach and Morehead Rivers. Elsewhere it occurs as scattered trees in the riparian habitats, tall savannah woodland and in tall open-forest (monsoon forest). It is a component of swamp forest dominated by Melaleuca species, usually on the better drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these forests include Acacia mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi (Paijmans et al., 1971; Skelton, 1987; Boland et al., 1990). It is also planted for its pulp and wood, and as an ornamental, from where it has escaped into nearby areas, being also found in disturbed sites and roadsides (Encyclopedia of Life, 2016; PIER, 2016). In Florida, it invades pinelands, hammocks and scrub habitats.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
A. auriculiformis is predominantly outcrossing (Moran et al., 1989; Ibrahim, 1991; Khasa et al., 1993) and exhibits marked genetic variation. Isoenzyme studies revealed three distinct clusters of populations corresponding to the geographic distribution of the species in the Northern Territory, Queensland and Papua New Guinea; Queensland populations are more closely related to populations from Papua New Guinea than populations from the Northern Territory. These studies showed about 73% of the isoenzyme variation was among progenies within populations and indicated that weight should be given to both intra- and inter-population genetic variability in initial selections in domestication programmes of this species (Wickneswari and Norwati, 1991, 1993). These regional groupings were also apparent in differences in seedling morphology (Pinyopusarerk et al., 1991).
Variation was examined at 12 months for 28 provenances of A. auriculiformis in a trial in Malaysia. All provenances had a survival rate of greater than 92%, but differed significantly in their growth performance (Nor Aini et al., 1994a, b). At 5 years from planting in Sabah, eight provenances including three from Papua New Guinea and five from Queensland were identified as superior for height and diameter growth (Bernard, 1996). Provenance trials on four low fertility test sites in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Khasa et al., 1995) showed variation in growth and morphological characters when assessed at ages 3, 9, 15 and 21 months. The provenances with the greatest volume production were from Papua New Guinea.
International provenance trials were established in 1989 to examine the extent of genotype/environment interactions. Results from Australia and Thailand showed that provenances from Queensland have a higher proportion of straight stems (Awang et al., 1994; Puangchit et al., 1996; Turnbull and Awang, 1997). In a trial on an Imperata grassland site in South Kalimantan, variation in growth and form at 69 months after planting showed that the most highly productive A. auriculiformis provenances in this environment were from Papua New Guinea (MAI up to 35.6 m³/ha), Queensland (MAI up to 30.3 m³/ha) and Northern Territory (MAI up to 30.2 m³/ha) (Otsamo et al., 1996). There were also differences in tree quality with Queensland sources generally having the lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees. Similar results were obtained 8 months after the planting of a seedling seed orchard of A. auriculiformis in south Sumatra, where the best height and diameter growth, and lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees were shown by the Wenlock River provenance from the far north of Queensland (Susanto, 1996). The relative performance of provenances of A. auriculiformis in provenance trials on several sites in Vietnam has been reported by Nguyen Hoang Nghia and Le Dinh Kha (1996). Provenance variation in tolerance to salt and waterlogging has been noted in pot trials (Marcar et al., 1991b).
Several countries have genetic improvement programmes that aim to produce better quality seed for future planting programmes. Seed orchards established on Melville Island in the Northern Territory of Australia (Harwood et al., 1994) have failed to produce worthwhile amounts of seed (Harwood, 1996). The best clones are being relocated to environments where better seed production can be obtained.
The use of A. auriculiformis as a parent of hybrids, particularly in combination with A. mangium, is of great potential. Many hybrids show desirable commercial characteristics such as fast growth, fine branching and straight boles. Sedgley et al. (1992) found that the A. auriculiformis x A. mangium hybrid was more successful than the reciprocal, but fertile seeds were produced following interspecific pollination in both directions. Vacuum drying of pollen and storage in a deep freeze is recommended for the medium length storage (3 years) of pollen used in crossing programmes of these species (Harbard et al., 1994). Experimental A. mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrid seed orchards have been established in Indonesia to build up a base for a clonal forestry programme (Arisman et al., 1994). Outstanding hybrid clones have been selected and mass propagated for clonal forestry in Vietnam (Le Dinh Kha, 1996).
The Australian Tree Seed Centre of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra, Australia maintains seed stocks of representative provenances from throughout the native range of the species.
DNA barcode information for the species is available at the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS, 2016). Germplasm is stored at various institutions (Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016). The chromosome number reported for A. auriculiformis is 2n=26 (PROTA, 2016).
Reproductive Biology
A. auriculiformis reproduces by seeds and vegetatively by cuttings (PROTA, 2016). Pollination is by insects (PROTA, 2016). A. auriculiformis produces large quantities of seed at an early age. Germination is rapid after suitable treatment and typically exceeds 70%. There is an average of 71,600 viable seeds/kg (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). Seedlings grow quickly and reach a height of 25-30 cm in 3-4 months, 6 m in 2 years, and 6-12 m in 3 years under favourable conditions (Turnbull and Awang, 1997). Young seedlings produce 2-3 bipinnate leaves, soon followed by phyllodes. Phyllodes are retained during the dry season; their average life is about 1 year in west Java, Indonesia.
Although A. auriculiformis has the ability to coppice, it is not a vigorous or prolific sprouter and careful management is required to obtain good results from coppicing.
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering usually starts within 2 years after sowing (Pinyopusarerk, 1990). The yellow flower spikes can be found on individual trees throughout the year but there is usually a distinct peak flowering season that may vary considerably with location. In the Northern Territory of Australia, flowering occurs from April to July with ripe seed available some 4-5 months later in August to October (Brock, 1988). Sedgley et al. (1992) found that peak flowering occurred in February to May at Atherton in Queensland, near Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia, and Tawau in Sabah, with ripe seed pods available between October and April. In Java, peak flowering occurs in March to June (Turnbull and Awang, 1997). Mature seed can be collected between August and February in Thailand (Pukittayacamee et al., 1993).
It is fire adapted (EDDMapS, 2016). Profuse natural regeneration may appear after fire or on disturbed sites in the absence of severe weed competition
Associations
A. auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating with a range of Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains in many tropical soils. In the Philippines, 52-66% of nitrogen uptake was shown to be derived from nitrogen fixation (Dart et al., 1991). This nitrogen-fixing potential may only be realized in many soils if adequate fertilizer, especially phosphorus, is applied. A. auriculiformis has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi. The ecto-mycorrhizal fungus, Thelephora spp., forms a beneficial association, and several species of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizas, including Glomus etunicatum and Gigaspora margarita, are effective (Dart et al., 1991; de la Cruz and Umali-Garcia, 1992).
Environmental Requirements
A. auriculiformis occurs naturally in hot humid and hot subhumid climatic zones. The data in the climate table pertain to the native range, whereas Nguyen Hoang Nghia (1996) provides a climatic profile of the species combining information from both native and planted ranges. For the natural distribution of this species, the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month (November-December) is within the range 32-34°C, and the mean minimum temperature of the coolest month (May-September) is 17-22°C. Outside the natural distribution, a wider range of temperatures is tolerated, indicating the adaptability of A. auriculiformis. Frost does not occur in its natural range, but elsewhere, light frosts are tolerated. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 760 mm in the Northern Territory of Australia to 3400 mm in Papua New Guinea (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). However, for most of the planted and natural distribution, rainfall is generally much lower (up to 2500 mm), with a summer monsoonal pattern and most rain falling from December to March.
In Australia, A. auriculiformis grows on dissected lateritic lowlands and alluvial coastal plains. Occurrences in the Northern Territory are along drainage channels just above the tidal range, on the edges of sand dunes, behind mangrove swamps, and along river levees. In Queensland it is mainly restricted to river banks and drainage lines. The soils are frequently yellow earths, but vary from dune sands and sandy loams to alluvial soils with a high clay and humus content. The pH usually ranges from 4.5-6.5, but in the Northern Territory it grows on alkaline beach sands with a pH of 8-9. In West Timor it is one of the best species for cultivation on highly alkaline soils (McKinnell and Harisetijono, 1991). A. auriculiformis is also highly tolerant of acidic conditions. In Australia, Malaysia and the Philippines it has grown on acid mine spoils of pH 3 (NAS, 1983), while A. auriculiformis is one of the few tree species to become widely planted on the acid sulphate soils (pH 3) of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam (Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1996). It can also tolerate saline soils. In an experiment in Thailand, it continued growing under saline conditions ranging from 0.15 to 7.25 dS/m, in both wet and dry soils (Turnbull and Awang, 1997). A. auriculiformis was also amongst the best performing Acacia spp. on slightly to moderately saline seasonally waterlogged soils in south-eastern Queensland (Marcar et al., 1991a).
The natural occurrences in western Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya are mainly on the relict alluvial plain known as the Oriomo Plateau. They are on shallow well-drained sandy loam overlying heavy clay or imperfectly drained soils subject to temporary or prolonged flooding in the wet season. These soils are strongly acid and of poor fertility with low values for nitrogen, exchangeable potassium and available phosphorus (Bleeker, 1983). It is generally a lowland species though has been found up to 1000 m altitude.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
-5 | -17 | 0 | 1000 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 0 | 6 |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 20 | 30 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 25 | 37 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 6 | 22 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 7 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 800 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
- very acid
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- saline
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Endoraecium digitatum | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Erythricium salmonicolor | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Ganoderma lucidum | Pathogen | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
Lasiodiplodia theobromae | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Oidium | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
Xystrocera festiva | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThere are several diseases and insect pests of A. auriculiformis, but none are limiting to establishment on appropriate sites at present (Day et al., 1994). During a recent workshop on diseases of tropical acacias (Old et al., 1997), a number of diseases were identified as potential threats to the future productivity of industrial plantations. These included stem cankers caused by a range of pathogens (Botryodiplodia theobromae [Lasiodiplodia theobromae], Botryosphaeria spp. and Hendersonula sp.) and most often associated with stem borer damage, pink disease (Erythricium salmonicolor) which is most prevalent in high rainfall areas, and phyllode rust (Endoraecium digitatum) which has impaired the growth of A. auriculiformis in Australia and Indonesia. It is not susceptible to heart rot which affects A. mangium (Ito and Nanis, 1997). A root rot fungus, Ganoderma sp., was observed to cause crown dieback and defoliation in A. auriculiformis plantations in parts of West Bengal, India (Barari, 1993). Ganoderma lucidum causes root rot in India (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002) and a species of Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae) has also been recorded as a parasite of A. auriculiformis in West Bengal (Banerjee et al., 1993). Seedlings in the nursery can be infected by powdery mildew (Oidium) especially where there is heavy shading (Harsh et al., 1992).
Stressed trees are particularly susceptible to attacks by insect pests. A beetle, Sinoxylon sp., can girdle small stems or branches. In Australia, the wood is attacked by borers and termites, and scale insects are prevalent on young trees (Hearne, 1975). Experimental results suggest that A. auriculiformis shows some resistance to termites (Turnbull and Awang, 1997). A. auriculiformis was recorded as host to Xystrocera festiva at two locations in south Sumatra, Indonesia (Suharti et al., 1994).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageVector Transmission (Biotic)
In Florida, USA, the seeds of A. auriculiformis are dispersed by birds including the introduced European starling (Langeland and Burks, 1998). It is also dispersed by birds in India, and can become invasive in high rainfall areas (India Biodiversity, 2016).
Intentional Introduction
A. auriculiformis has been widely cultivated in Asia, Africa and South America, partly due to its ability to grow in poor soils and for its use as an ornamental (PROTA, 2016). It has been planted in various countries for pulp and wood production (Logan, 1987). Reports of this species becoming invasive relate to locations where A. auriculiformis was first introduced deliberately, after which the tree escaped cultivation.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Used for intercropping | Yes | Yes | Turnbull and Awang (1997) |
Digestion and excretion | Seeds are dispersed by birds | Yes | Langeland and Burks | |
Disturbance | A fast grower in open areas | Yes | Encyclopedia of Life (2016) | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Used as an ornamental tree from where it can escape into nearby areas | Yes | PIER (2016) | |
Forage | Trees are browsed by cattle | Yes | Yes | Banerjee (1973) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Recommended for erosion control and soil improvement | Yes | Yes | Hanelt and IPK (2016) |
Horticulture | Planted as an ornamental tree | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2016) |
Medicinal use | Used in ethnobotany in Australia. | Yes | Contu (2012) | |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2016) | |
Timber trade | Introduced in various countries for its wood and pulp. | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2016) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageThe economic impact of A. auriculiformis is predominantly positive, as a valuable fast-growing plantation tree species for fuel, timber and agrorestry benefits. A. auriculiformis is reported as a dangerous tree in Florida due to its inability to withstand hurricane winds; possibly causing damage to nearby structures (Encyclopedia of Life, 2016).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageInvasion of A. auriculiformis is associated with changes in biodiversity. The species has invaded disturbed areas, pinelands, scrub and hammocks in south Florida, USA and altered plant communities by displacing native plants.
Impact on Habitats
The leaf litter is reported to be allelopathic (EDDMapS, 2016). It had been shown to affect the germination and growth of herbaceous plants, including wheat (Ismail and Metali, 2014). Being a nitrogen fixing tree it affects the local nitrogen cycling (Gordon, 1998).
Impact on Biodiversity
A. auriculiformis shades out native plants and is noted as a particular threat to certain rare species and habitats in Florida, USA, and is posing a threat to plants such as scrub pinweed Lechea cernua, which is listed as threatened in the Preservation of Native Flora of Florida Act (Langeland and Burks, 1998; Wunderlin and Hansen, 2016; NatureServe, 2016). It is a threat in the pine rockland, which is considered as a very rare ecosystem at Miami, Florida (USA) (NatureServe, 2016).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lechea cernua (nodding pinweed) | National list(s) | Florida | Allelopathic; Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - shading | Wunderlin and Hansen (2016) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Has high genetic variability
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Infrastructure damage
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Allelopathic
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
The economic impact of A. auriculiformis is predominantly positive, as a valuable fast-growing plantation tree species for fuel, timber and agrorestry benefits. However, its invasive potential has been noted, mainly in Florida, USA.
Though not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping A. auriculiformis with groundnuts, rice, mung beans (Vigna radiata) and kenaf has proved to be successful (Turnbull and Awang, 1997). Pruning of A. auriculiformis is recommended to improve light availability to crop plants (Miah et al., 1995). It has been used satisfactorily as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is sometimes planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or improve soil fertility. Its leaves (phyllodes) are good for soil mulching. A. auriculiformis is used for shade and ornamental purposes in cities where its hardiness, dense foliage and bright-yellow flowers are desirable attributes. A. auriculiformis can be used as a host tree in the nursery propagation of sandalwood (Santalum album) (Nasi and Ehrhart, 1996) and is also used as a secondary or tertiary host when sandalwood is established in the field (Fox and Barrett, 1995).
A. auriculiformis wood has a high basic density and a calorific value of 4700-4900 kcal/kg, which make it ideal for firewood and charcoal. The charcoal is not very heavy, burns well and does not smoke or spark (Wiersum and Ramlan, 1982) with physical properties, calorific value and burning properties described by Yantasath et al. (1993). In Asia and Africa, it is planted for fuelwood, and is an outstanding fuelwood species for acid soils (Ryan et al., 1994). The annual fall of leaves, twigs, and branches can amount to 4-6 t/ha which is useful as household fuel (NAS, 1983). The sapwood is yellow and the heartwood light brown to dark red; the timber is fine-grained, often attractively figured and finishes well (Keating and Bolza, 1982). The wood of A. auriculiformis makes attractive furniture and veneers (PROTA, 2016). It is also suitable for construction work (e.g. framing, flooring), wood turning and carving. Boards may sometimes split when sawn. The crooked and multiple stems which are a common feature of the species largely restrict its use as poles or other forms of timber that require reasonable length. The heartwood is typically hard and durable, but the sapwood is highly susceptible to termite and borer attack and requires preservative treatment when in contact with the soil.
Plantation-grown trees are very promising for the production of unbleached kraft pulp (for bags, wrapping paper, linerboard) and high quality neutral sulphite semichemical pulp (for corrugating, medium and higher-grade packaging-type products) (Logan, 1987). It is less suitable for high-yield mechanical type pulps (Phillips et al., 1979) although there is significant variation in pulp-making properties between provenances (Logan, 1987). Large-scale plantations have already been established in Karnataka, India for the production of paper pulp.
The bark has sufficient tannins (about 13%) for possible commercial exploitation (Abdul Razak et al., 1981). A natural dye, used in the batik textile industry in India and Indonesia is also extracted from the bark (Encyclopedia of Life, 2016; PROTA, 2016). Lac insect culture using the species as a host plant is possible. Edible mushrooms occur in plantations in Thailand and Vietnam. A. auriculiformis flowers are a source of bee forage and contribute to honey production (Moncur et al., 1991). The gum from the tree is sold commercially (Encyclopedia of Life, 2016).
Social Benefit
Extracts of A. auriculiformis are used by aborigines of Australia as analgesics, to treat pains and sore eyes, and to treat rheumatism (Contu, 2012; Encyclopedia of Life, 2016). Ethanolic extracts from the leaves showed memory enhancing potential at studies by Sharma et al. (2014), which might help treat dementia and other cognitive problems.
Although A. auriculiformis is not recognized as a fodder species, trees are browsed by cattle in India and Fiji (Banerjee, 1973; L Thomson, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia, personal communication, 1997; PROTA, 2016). A preliminary study of fodder values has shown that A. auriculiformis meets the minimum requirements for certain nutrients and warrants further investigation (Vercoe, 1989).
Flowers are sold in Burma to be used as altar flowers (PROTA, 2016).
Environmental Services
The species is planted to provide shelter along shorelines and for revegetating mining spoil heaps. The spreading, densely-matted root system can stabilize eroding land. It has been used widely in revegetating degraded land and rehabilitating grasslands in India, Indonesia and Vietnam. Extracts of the heartwood are reported as inhibiting fungi that attack wood (Encyclopedia of Life, 2016).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Invertebrate food for lac/wax insects
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
- Soil improvement
Fuels
- Charcoal
- Fuelwood
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Bark products
- Carved material
- Dye/tanning
- Fibre
- Gums
- Miscellaneous materials
- Mulches
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Christmas tree
- Cut flower
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
Wood Products
Top of pageCharcoal
Furniture
Roundwood
- Building poles
- Posts
- Roundwood structures
- Stakes
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- Flooring
- For light construction
Veneers
Wood-based materials
- Composite boards
- Wood cement
Woodware
- Industrial and domestic woodware
- Tool handles
- Toys
- Turnery
- Wood carvings
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageA. auriculiformis is related to A. polystachya , A. cincinnata. and A. spirorbis subsp. solandri and more distantly to A. aulacocarpa and A. crassicarpa (Pedley, 1975). It hybridizes readily with A. leptocarpa and A. mangium in nature and in cultivation (Pinyopusarerk, 1993). The hybrids with A. mangium are intermediate between the two parents in morphology and wood properties. They inherit the straighter stem form of A. mangium and the self-pruning ability and the stem circularity of A. auriculiformis (Turnbull and Awang, 1997). Hybrids tend to have more vigorous growth and are more resistant to heart rot. There is much interest in the domestication of this hybrid as a result of this combination of commercially desirable characteristics. Aspects of seed production and vegetative propagation of the hybrids are covered in Carron and Aken (1992).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
Public awareness
A. auriculiformis is listed as invasive in Florida, USA and its planting is prohibited in some counties (Langeland and Burks, 1998; PROTA, 2016). It is also listed as invasive in the Bahamas (BEST Commission, 2003).
Eradication
Starr et al. (2003) advised that plantings should be discontinued in Hawaii, USA due to its invasive characteristics.
Control
Physical/mechanical control
Hand pulling of the seedlings and tree girdling are recommended control measurements (PIER. 2016), but might disturb soils and increase other non-natives (NatureServe, 2016).
Biological control
No known biological control has been attempted.
Chemical control
The use of triclopyr herbicide mixed with oil is recommended (PIER, 2016). In Florida, triclopyr applications to basal bark and cut stumps are listed as permitted treatments (Langeland et al., 2011).
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Distribution References
BEST Commission, 2003. Invasive plant species., Bahamas Environment, Science and Technology (BEST) Commission. http://www.best.bs/Invasive_plant_species.htm
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CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database., Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
SE-EPPC, 2002. Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council., Nashville, USA: http://www.se-eppc.org/
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa., Honolulu, USDA Forest Service. 51.
Starr F, Starr K, Loope L, 2003. Acacia auriculiformis. In: Plants of Hawaii Reports, http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/html/acacia_auriculiformis.htm
Tan B C, Tan K S, 2002. Invasive alien species in Singapore: a review. ASEAN Biodiversity. 33-34.
UPRRP, 2016. UPRRP Herbarium., University of Puerto Rico. http://herbariodb.uprrp.edu/Bol/uprrp/Search
USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
World Agroforestry Centre, 2002. Agroforestree Database., Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/Sites/TreeDBS/AFT/AFT.htm
WorldWideWattle, 2016. WorldWideWattle ver. 2., http://worldwidewattle.com
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Atlas of Florida Plants | http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/ | |
Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System | http://www.eddmaps.org | |
NatureServe | http://explorer.natureserve.org | |
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species | http://www.iucnredlist.org | |
World Wide Wattle | http://worldwidewattle.com |
Contributors
Top of page25/09/2016 Updated by:
Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez
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