Abutilon theophrasti (velvet leaf)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Seedling

Seedling of A. theophrasti.

Shunji Kurokawa

Juvenile plant

Juvenile plant of A. theophrasti.

Shunji Kurokawa

Flower

Flower of A. theophrasti.

Shunji Kurokawa

Infestation

Maize field in Japan infested by A. theophrasti.

Shunji Kurokawa

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Abutilon theophrasti Medic.

Preferred Common Name

velvet leaf

Other Scientific Names

Abutilon avicennae Gaertn..
Sida abutilon L.

International Common Names

English: China jute; Chinese lantern; Indian mallow; piemarker; velvetleaf
Spanish: malva blanca; malva de terciopelo; malva grande; yute de la China
French: jute de Chine
Chinese: ching-ma

Local Common Names

Germany: Chinesische Jute; Chinesischer Hanf; Lindenblaettrige Schoenmalve; Samtpappel
Italy: cencio molle; Iuta cinese
Japan: bouma; ichibi
USA: butterprint; buttonweed

EPPO code

ABUTH (Abutilon theophrasti)

Summary of Invasiveness

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A. theophrasti continues to expand its distribution in North America, Europe, Korea and Japan, by cultivation as a fibre crop, and by accidental introduction from contamination of grains and crop seeds. The species causes serious economic damage to agricultural production, particularly maize, soyabeans and cotton. On the other hand, the species is not invasive to natural vegetation in any area and the impact on biodiversity is small. A. theophrasti is not listed as a global invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Abutilon
Species: Abutilon theophrasti

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Mitch (1991) reports the nomenclatural history of A. theophrasti. Carolus Linnaeus classified this species as Sida abutilon. Its genus companions included such plants as Sida spinosa L. In 1787, Friedrich Casimir Medicus, director of the garden at Mannheim, published a volume in which he rearranged the Malvaceae, placing Sida abutilon in the genus Abutilon with the specific epithet theophrasti. Joseph Gaertner reclassified the plant as Abutilon avicennae, but scientific precedence held sway, and Medicus's name was restored.

The common names include several names meaning a kind of jute or hemp, because of the utilization of A. theophrasti as a fibre crop; for example, 'ma' of 'ching-ma' and the name 'bouma' mean 'hemps'.

Description

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Abutilon theophrasti is an annual herb, reproducing only by seed. After germination, a slender taproot elongates into soil with many smaller branches. The stem is erect, 1-4 m, much branched in the upper part. The crop type tends to produce many more branches than the wild type. The surface of the stem is smooth with short velvety hairs. Sixteen to sixty-three leaves per plant are alternately produced with long petioles, and a broadly heart-shaped blade. The width of the leaf blade is 7-20 cm and the leaf area ranges from 300 to 470 cm².

Flowers are located in the leaf axils of the main stem and short terminal branches, and have five yellow to yellow-orange petals slightly notched apically, 1.3-2.5 cm wide when open. The peduncles are shorter than the petioles. Anther filaments are united to form a central column. Seed pods or capsules with circular clusters of 12-15 carpels (seed pods) are cup shaped, 1.3-2.5 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, hairy and beaked. Each carpel contains 1-3 seeds. Mature capsules differ in colour between plant types. The capsule of the crop type is ivory whereas that of the other forms of A. theophrasti is black. The seeds are purplish-brown, kidney-shaped, notched, flattened, 1 mm thick and 2-3 mm long.

Plant Type

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Annual
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Seed propagated

Distribution

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In the genus Abutilon, only A. theophrasti occurs in temperate climates, with other Abutilon species found in tropical and subtropical climates. A. theophrasti originated in India or China. A. theophrasti was introduced into North America from Europe or Asia, and occurs throughout the United States between 32 and 45°N latitude, and in Ontario and Quebec in Canada, as a major agricultural weed. A. theophrasti also occurs in Europe, particularly in southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean region, and its range continues to spread throughout Europe. It is absent from South and Central America.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Eritrea	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Ethiopia	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Morocco	Present	Introduced	1980	Invasive	Tanji and Taleb (1997) Taleb et al. (1998)
Asia
China	Present				CABI (Undated) Niu et al. (2009) Cong et al. (2020)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Hubei	Present	Native			Wood (1992) USDA-ARS (2003)
-Jilin	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003) Cong et al. (2020)
-Liaoning	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
-Shanxi	Present				Niu et al. (2009)
India	Absent, Formerly present				Wood (1992)
Iran	Absent, Formerly present				Faseli (1977) Ghorbani et al. (2010) Ghahari (2017)
Israel	Absent, Formerly present				Wood (1992)
Japan	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Honshu	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Kurokawa (2001) Kurokawa (2002) Nishida (2002) Watanabe et al. (2002)
-Kyushu	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Kurokawa (2001) Kurokawa (2002) Nishida (2002)
-Shikoku	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Kurokawa (2001) Kurokawa (2002) Nishida (2002)
Kazakhstan	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Pakistan	Absent, Formerly present				Kahn et al. (1981)
South Korea	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Lee et al. (1997) Park GeunJe et al. (2001) Kang ByeungHoa and Shim SangIn (2002) Oh et al. (2007) Hwang KiSeon et al. (2015)
Turkey	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Üremİș and Uygur (1999) Üremİș and Uygur (2002)
Europe
Bulgaria	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Konstantinov and Nikolova (1983) Milanova et al. (2007)
Croatia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Jurković and Culek (1997) Hulina (2000) Vrandecic et al. (2004) Vrandecic et al. (2005) Vuković et al. (2014)	First reported: 198*
Denmark	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Introduced			Ognjanović et al. (1986)
France	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Germany	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Greece	Present	Introduced			Boliotes (1984)
Hungary	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Szőke (2001)
Italy	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Campagna and Rapparini (1997) USDA-ARS (2003)
Netherlands	Present	Introduced			Netherlands Plantenziektenkundige Dienst (1982) USDA-ARS (2003)
Poland	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Portugal	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Romania	Present	Introduced			Chirilă and Pintilie (1986) USDA-ARS (2003)
Russia	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Russian Far East	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
-Southern Russia	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Serbia	Present				Marić et al. (2018)
Slovakia	Present				Týr and Vereš (2012)
Slovenia	Present	Introduced			Lešnik (2000)
Spain	Present, Widespread	Introduced			Fraga et al. (2001)
Sweden	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
Switzerland	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Gut and Weber (1999) USDA-ARS (2003)
Ukraine	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced			USDA-ARS (2003)
North America
Canada	Present				CABI (Undated) Stobbs et al. (2009)	Present based on regional distribution.
-New Brunswick	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Warwick and Black (1988)
-Nova Scotia	Absent, Formerly present				Warwick and Black (1988)
-Ontario	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Warwick and Black (1988) Stobbs et al. (2009)
-Quebec	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Doyon et al. (1986) Warwick and Black (1988)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated) Li et al. (2001)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Alabama	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Arizona	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Arkansas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-California	Present, Widespread	Introduced	1917		Holt and Boose (2000) USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Colorado	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Connecticut	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Delaware	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Florida	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Idaho	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Illinois	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Stoller et al. (1993) Li et al. (2001) USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Indiana	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Jordan (1980) Jordan (1984) USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Iowa	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Bello and Owen (1986) Hartzler (1996) Felix and Owen (2001) USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Kansas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Kentucky	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Maine	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Massachusetts	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Michigan	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Minnesota	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Montana	Present, Widespread	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002) Rice (2003)
-Nebraska	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Nevada	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Hampshire	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Jersey	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-New York	Present	Introduced			Dillard et al. (1991) USDA-NRCS (2002)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-North Dakota	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Ohio	Present	Introduced			Loux and Berry (1991) USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Oklahoma	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Oregon	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Rhode Island	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-South Dakota	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Tennessee	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Texas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Utah	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Vermont	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Washington	Present	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002) USDA-ARS (2003)
-West Virginia	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Wisconsin	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2002)

History of Introduction and Spread

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Abutilon theophrasti has been introduced into countries worldwide and cultivated as a fibre crop. Accidental introductions, mixed in grains or crop seeds, are also important pathways for the spread of the species.

Spencer (1984) summarized the history of A. theophrasti in the USA. Before 1700, early North American settlers had introduced A. theophrasti from England as an essential source of plant fibres. A. theophrasti had become common in at least two states, Pennsylvania and Virginia, by 1829. However, the inferior characteristics of the fibre of A. theophrasti could have contributed to the lack of interest in A. theophrasti as a fibre plant in the USA. Since the 1870s, the status of A. theophrasti has changed to that of a major weed.

In Canada, Warwick and Black (1988) report the history of spread of A. theophrasti. On the basis of herbarium records, A. theophrasti colonies were small in Canada until 1950. By 1984, its range as a weed of cultivated land extended to all but three counties in Ontario, 72 localities in Quebec, and at least one location near Wilmo, Nova Scotia. The spread would appear to be due to movement of seed in feed grain, mainly maize and soyabeans, and on tillage and harvesting equipment.

In Japan, A. theophrasti must have been introduced as a fibre crop before 918, because the name already existed in old Japanese literature edited in 918. Since 1980, weedy strains have been accidentally introduced, mixed in feed grains from the United States and Australia, and occur as a troublesome weed in maize fields all over Japan (Kurokawa et al., 2003). A. theophrasti has also been accidentally introduced into Morocco mixed in crop seeds, and it has become a serious weed since 1980 (Tanji and Taleb, 1997). In Europe, there is little information about the first records of the species.

Risk of Introduction

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There is a risk of continued spread of A. theophrasti through accidental introduction by the contamination of grains or crop seeds. A. theophrasti is listed as a noxious weed in Colorado, a secondary noxious weed in Iowa and Minnesota, a 'B' designated weed in Oregon, and a class A noxious weed in Washington, USA. However, it is not listed in the Federal Noxious Weed List for the USA.

Habitat

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A. theophrasti in its introduced areas is found in wasteland, vacant lots, gardens and cultivated fields, especially maize and soyabean fields and along fence rows (Warwick and Black, 1988).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details

Hosts/Species Affected

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A. theophrasti competes with the listed crops for light and nutrients. Allelopathic chemicals from seeds or leaves depress the germination and growth of crops (Warwick and Black, 1988). Because maize leaf production is complete by anthesis whereas A. theophrasti continues vegetative production throughout its life cycle, A. theophrasti will produce relatively greater quantities of biomass late in the season, which may increase competition for light (Lindquist, 2001).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Other
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Other
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (cabbage)	Brassicaceae	Other
Brassica rapa subsp. rapa (turnip)	Brassicaceae	Other
Citrus	Rutaceae	Other
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton)	Malvaceae	Main
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Other
Hordeum vulgare (barley)	Poaceae	Other
Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet)	Poaceae	Other
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Other
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum)	Poaceae	Other
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Pre-emergence, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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The chromosome number of A. theophrasti is 2n=6X=42. Hybridization between A. theophrasti and other species has not been reported. In a study of allozyme variations among 39 populations of A. theophrasti collected between southern Ohio (39°N) and Central Ontario (45°N), only two of 16 enzymes were variable and only four multilocus electrophoretic genotypes were evident among populations, although high levels of enzyme multiplicity were evident within an individual as a result of polyploidy (Warwick and Black, 1986).

Physiology and Phenology

The optimal temperature for germination of A. theophrasti seeds is 24-30°C. Seeds emerge in soil between 1 and 5 cm depth. A. theophrasti emerges throughout the season (Warwick and Black, 1988), mainly from March to May in the United States (Stoller and Wax, 1973; Egley and Williams, 1991; Hartzler et al., 1999). Emerging seedlings immediately produce a taproot, followed by development of lateral roots 1 or 2 days after emergence (Warwick and Black, 1988). Under non-competitive field conditions in Mississippi, maximum height and ground cover occurred 10 weeks after emergence with peak capsule production at 13 weeks (Chandler and Dale, 1974).

Oliver (1979) suggested that A. theophrasti was highly photoperiodic (a short-day plant). In eastern Canada, A. theophrasti starts to flower in late August to September, setting seed from September to October (Warwick and Black, 1988). A. theophrasti has some freely moving leaves that maintain a small angle between the normal to the leaf and the sun's rays (Jurik and Akey, 1994). The freely moving leaves have higher total daily carbon gain, transpiration and water use efficiency than leaves fixed in a horizontal position.

Reproductive Biology

A. theophrasti is a self-compatible, autogamous species. As pollen of A. theophrasti is released by the anthers before or in immediate conjunction with flower opening, pollination would have occurred before stigmas could be exposed to pollen from another flower (Andersen, 1988). Approximately 3% of seeds produced in field conditions could originate from outcrossing, in occasionally found buds with a stigma protruding from otherwise tightly closed petals (Andersen, 1988).

Propagation is always by seeds, which are produced in large numbers, varying from 700 to 44,200 per plant. Seeds mature 17-22 days after pollination. Seeds are dispersed by opening of each carpel with a vertical slit along the outer edge. Seeds are known to remain viable for up to 50 years when stored dry or in the soil (Shaw and Brown, 1972).

Environmental Requirements

In North America, A. theophrasti is absent from the prairies, where the dry climate and high evaporation restrict growth (Lindsay, 1953). Although A. theophrasti is continuing to expand northward into Canada with climates of progressively shorter growing seasons, it does not reproduce in Alaska with only 88 frost-free days (Andersen et al., 1985). A. theophrasti occurs on a range of soil types, from sandy to clay loams (Warwick and Black, 1988). In the mid-western United States and southwestern Ontario, Canada, A. theophrasti commonly occurs together with Datura stramonium in the early successional annual community that develops on cultivated fields and field margins (Benner and Bazzaz, 1987; Garbutt and Bazzaz, 1987).

Associations

A. theophrasti is host for a maize pest, Helicoverpa zea; a tobacco pest, Heliothis virescens (Hendricks, 1992); and three soyabean diseases, Diaporthe phaseolorum var. sojae, Collectotrichum dematium f.sp. truncatum and Glomerella cingulata (Hepperly et al., 1980). A fungal association consisting of Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Epicoccum purpurascens and Fusarium spp. may extend A. theophrasti seed longevity by acting as a barrier to potential seed decomposers originating from the soil (Kremer, 1986). It has been reported that mycorrhizal infestation of A. theophrasti promotes capsule production and increases the competitive ability of the offspring (Shumway and Koide, 1995; Heppell et al., 1998).

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
0	0	0	0

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	7
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	18
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	-8

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	0	0	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Summer
Uniform
Winter

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
impeded
seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages
Althaeus folkertsi	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds
Colletotrichum coccodes	Pathogen	Plants\|Leaves
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.sp. malvae	Pathogen
Fusarium oxysporum	Pathogen
Gibberella baccata	Pathogen	Plants\|Leaves; Plants\|Roots; Plants\|Stems
Liorhyssus hyalinus	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds
Niesthrea louisianica	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	Pathogen	Plants\|Stems
Septoria glycines	Pathogen	Plants\|Leaves

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Most of the organisms listed in the Natural Enemies table cause serious damage to A. theophrasti. All the species listed are found as natural infections. A wilt pathogen, Verticillium dahliae, causes necrosis to leaves of A. theophrasti and reduces seed production. Infections of A. theophrasti by the pathogen have been reported in Illinois (Kirkpatrick and Harrison, 1979), Wisconsin (Sickinger and Harvey, 1980; Sickinger et al., 1987), Iowa (Hartzler, 1996) and Indiana (Wiley et al., 1985) in the USA.

Gibb (1991) studied five insect species, Heliothis zea [Helicoverpa zea], H. virescens, Liorhyssus hyalinus, Niestrea louisianica and Althaeus folkertsi, attacking A. theophrasti seeds, and noted that these species had a significant negative impact on the number of viable A. theophrasti seeds produced in Indiana, USA. N. louisianica reduced the number of viable seeds of A. theophrasti by 17.5% and 15.5% in two places in Missouri (Kremer and Spencer, 1989).

Colletotrichum coccodes has been investigated as a possible mycoherbicide (Gotlieb et al., 1987; Fernando et al., 1996). The pathogen causes more serious damage to A. theophrasti in competitive conditions with soyabeans than in monoculture (Ditommaso et al., 1996).

Infection by Phomopsis longicolla was first reported in Illinois, USA, in 2000 (Li et al., 2001). The pathogen causes reddish-brown lesions on the lower stem and upper root area of A. theophrasti plants growing in soyabean fields. Turnip mosaic potyvirus also caused severe mosaic symptoms to A. theophrasti in Piedmont, northwest Italy (Guglielmone et al., 2000). A. theophrasti can be a host of a parasitic plant, Cuscuta pentagona, only when roots of A. theophrasti are colonized by mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus intraradices) (Sanders et al., 1993).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

Propagation is wholly by seeds, which are produced in very large numbers. Seeds are dispersed by the gravity dispersal system.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

No relevant instances have been documented.

Agricultural Practices

Movement of seeds by agricultural practices such s fibre crop cultivation, and transportation of crop seeds or grains, are very important for spreading A. theophrasti.

Accidental Introduction

An important pathway of introduction is the accidental contamination of feed grains. Much of the spread of A. theophrasti in eastern Canada would appear to be due to movement of seed in feed grain, mainly maize and soyabeans, and on tillage and harvesting equipment (Brown, 1985). In Japan, rapid spread as a serious weed was caused by feed grains containing A. theophrasti seeds imported from the United States and Australia (Kurokawa, 2002). The accidental contamination of crop seeds is another pathway (Ilic and Kalinovic, 1995; Tanji and Taleb, 1997). Manure could also be a vector of A. theophrasti seeds (Mt. Pleasant and Schlather, 1994; Nishida, 2002).

Intentional Introduction

In the United States, A. theophrasti seeds were introduced as a fibre crop in the eighteenth century (Spencer, 1984). The introduction of seeds for development of fibre crop cultivation may have been one of the most important intentional introduction pathways. However, at present this pathway may not be important because of the decline in A. theophrasti cultivation.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Containers and packaging - wood		Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Growing medium accompanying plants	seeds
True seeds (inc. grain)	seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	None
Livestock production	Negative
Native fauna	None
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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A. theophrasti causes severe crop loss in maize, soyabean and cotton. In soyabean, 72% crop loss can be caused by infestation of A. theophrasti (Sterling and Putnam, 1987), while 70% crop loss has been recorded in maize (Campbell and Hartwig, 1982). In the United States, the estimated cost for control of A. theophrasti was $343 million in 1982 (Spencer, 1984).

Environmental Impact

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Environmental impact of A. theophrasti may be small, because the species is not invasive to natural vegetation in any area.

Impact: Biodiversity

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No instance of competition or hybridization with native flora has been reported.

Social Impact

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There is little social impact, but the species has a peculiar smell which can be offensive.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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Spencer (1984) noted that bast fibre of A. theophrasti was used to make rope, cordage, bags, coarse cloth, fishing nets and paper stock, and for caulking boats, in China since 2000 B.C. Seeds contain 15-30% lipid and are edible.

Uses List

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Materials

Fibre

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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There are no similar species which could be confused in the field.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Sato et al. (2000) noted that a living mulch of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) reduced yield loss in the late spring sowing of maize in Japan. Lueschen and Andersen (1980) suggested that intensive tillage could decrease the seed population.

Mechanical Control

Hand-pulling can be effective on young seedlings but is impractical in large fields of maize, soyabeans and cotton in intensive agriculture. Machine intertillage in row crops is also effective only in relatively small fields.

Chemical Control

Effective herbicides include metribuzin, atrazine, 2,4-D, bentazone, bromoxynil, cyanazine, dicamba, linuron, halosulfuron-methyl and fluthiacet-methyl. However, triazine-resistant biotypes of A. theophrasti have been reported in Maryland, Wisconsin and Minnesota, USA (Ritter, 1986; Grey et al., 1993; Weed Science Society of America, 2003).

Biological Control

Niesthrea lousianica, Fusarium lateritium [Gibberella baccata] and Colletotrichum coccodes have been studied as potential agents for biological control or mycoherbicides (Warwick and Black, 1988). In field tests, pre-emergence applications of F. lateritium in granular formulation gave 46 and 35% control of A. theophrasti in 1982 and 1983, respectively (Boyette and Walker, 1985).

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.sp. malvae has been investigated as a potential biocontrol agent. Mortensen (1988) found that the fungus was specific to Malva spp. and A. theophrasti, but was less pathogenic on A. theophrasti. Kutcher and Mortensen (1999) stated that although the fungus is pathogenic on velvetleaf, it does not cause sufficient damage or mortality to be considered as a biological control agent. However, they investigated a range of isolates from Canada which were found to be highly pathogenic on A. theophrasti.

Fusarium oxysporum has also been investigated on A. theophrasti (Kremer and Schulte, 1989; Jennings et al., 2000) In the study by Kremer and Schulte, seedling emergence was decreased when the fungus was applied together with ethephon.

Integrated Control

Because A. theophrasti germinates throughout the season, diverse practices are needed to sustain effective control of A. theophrasti infestations, including crop rotation, multiple herbicide applications and cultivations (Warwick and Black, 1988). Bussan and Boerboom (2001) modelled the integrated management of A. theophrasti in a maize-soyabean rotation. Wilt disease or mechanical treatment by inter-row cultivation could reduce the herbicide rate needed to reduce the A. theophrasti seed bank only when initial seed bank density was low.

References

Top of page

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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Abutilon theophrasti (velvet leaf)

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