Abutilon indicum (country mallow)

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet

Preferred Common Name

country mallow

Other Scientific Names

Abutilon asiaticum (L.) Sweet
Abutilon badium S.A. Husain and Baquar
Abutilon cavaleriei H.Lév.
Abutilon cysticarpum Hance ex Walp.
Abutilon indica
Abutilon indicum var. microphyllum Hocr.
Abutilon indicum var. populifolium (Lam.) Wight and Arn.
Abutilon indicum var. populifolium Wight and Arn. ex Mast
Abutilon populifolium (Lam.) G.Don
Abutilon populifolium (Lam.) Sweet
Sida asiatica L.
Sida indica L.
Sida populiflora Lam.

International Common Names

English: Indian abutilon; Indian mallow; monkey bush; moon-flower
Spanish: Malva amarilla
French: fausse guimauve; gimauve; guimauve fausse satinee; herbe de douze heures; mauve du pays
Chinese: mo pan cao

Local Common Names

Cambodia: dok toc lai
Cuba: botón de oro; botoncillo de oro; buenas tardes; doce del día; malva blanca
Germany: Indische Schoenmalve
Haiti: mauve élantine
India: atibala; duvvena Kayalu; kanghi; kattooram; ooram; paniyaratutti; petari; potari; soluku poo; thuthi; tutththi gida; tutti; tuturabenda; velluram
Indonesia: belangan sumpa; cemplok; kecil
Italy: fiore di dodici ore
Laos: houk phao ton
Lesser Antilles: guimauve; mauve; monkey bush
Malaysia: bunga kisar; kembang lohor
Montserrat: burry bark
Philippines: dalupang; tabing
Puerto Rico: buenas tardes
Thailand: khrop fan see; ma kong khaao; phong phaang
Vietnam: coosi xay; dawfng xay

EPPO code

ABUIN (Abutilon indicum)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

A. indicum is a common weed, found in open, sunny and warm areas, from sea level to ca. 1600 m altitude. It is listed as an invasive mostly in Asia and Oceania (PIER, 2015; PROTA, 2015). It is not considered a threat at high elevations (PIER, 2015). The species is used widely in its native range as a traditional medicinal plant (Mohite et al, 2012; Vadnere Gautam et al., 2013), and was probably introduced for cultivation outside its native range for medicinal purposes. For some of the countries where it is reported as invasive, it is also listed as cultivated, making it probable that the species escaped from cultivation into suitable habitats, as it is listed as found in disturbed areas near dwellings and roadsides (PIER, 2015). No published details are available about the extent of invasiveness or the impacts of the species in the regions where it is reported as invasive.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Abutilon
Species: Abutilon indicum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page

Abutilon is a genus of herbs, subshrubs, shrubs, or small trees of about 200 species, mostly in tropical and subtropical regions (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015). The common names for Abutilon indicum that are most used are country mallow, and for India Kanghi (Hindi) and Atibala (Sanskrit). The species may be truly native to India (PROTA, 2015), hence another widely used name of Indian mallow or Indian abutilon.

Description

Top of page

The following description is from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015):

Herbs to subshrubs, annual or perennial, erect, many branched, 1-2.5 m, entire plant gray puberulent. Stipules subulate, 1-2 mm, curved outward; petiole 2-4 cm, gray puberulent and sparsely hairy, hairs silky, ca. 1 mm; leaf blades ovate-orbicular or nearly orbicular, 3-9 × 2.5-7 cm, densely gray stellate puberulent, base cordate, margin irregularly serrate, apex acute or acuminate. Flowers solitary, axillary, 2-2.5 cm in diam. Pedicel ca. 4 cm, articulate near apex, gray stellate puberulent. Calyx green, disk-shaped, 6-10 mm in diam., densely gray puberulent, lobes 5, broadly ovate, apex acute. Corolla uniformly yellow; petals 7-8 mm. Staminal column stellate scabrous. Ovary 15-20-loculed. Fruit black, flat topped, ca. 1.5 cm in diam.; mericarps 15-20, apex acute, slightly awned, long stellate scabrous. Seeds reniform, sparsely stellate.

Plant Type

Top of page

Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Shrub
Woody

Distribution

Top of page

A. indicum is distributed mainly in the tropics, subtropics and into warm temperate areas of the New and Old Worlds; from sea level to about 1600 m elevation (PROTA, 2015). It is reported to be native to Africa, Asia and Australasia, although it has been argued to be truly native only to Asia (PROTA, 2015). It has also been reported to be native in some countries of the New World (Esteves and Takeuchi, 2015; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015; USDA-NRCS, 2015).

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Dec 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Angola	Present	Native			Flora Zambesiaca (2015)
Comoros	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)
Ethiopia	Present				Cufodontis (1959)
Madagascar	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)	Toliara, Anosy; Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d'Andohahela Androy, Road from Ambovombe to Tsiombe
Malawi	Present				Flora Zambesiaca (2015)
Mauritius	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
-Rodrigues	Present	Native			Balfour (1879)	Common weed
Mozambique	Present				Flora Zambesiaca (2015)	Gaza, Chibuto, between Maniquenique and Licilo; Sabie, Moamba; Chemba
Réunion	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
São Tomé and Príncipe	Present	Native			Flora Zambesiaca (2015)
Seychelles	Present	Native			PROTA (2015) Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (1983) PIER (2015)
South Africa	Present	Native			Flora Zambesiaca (2015)	Transvaal; Zululand
Tanzania	Present	Introduced			Moreau and Moreau (1931)	Open bush formation that apparently established itself after being used for cultivation
Uganda	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Zimbabwe	Present				Flora Zambesiaca (2015)	Lower Sabi; West Nicholson
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Bangladesh	Present				Hanif et al. (2009)	Chittagong Hills Tracts Region
Bhutan	Present	Native			PROTA (2015) Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
British Indian Ocean Territory
-Chagos Archipelago	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2015)	Diego Garcia Island (also listed as cultivated)
Cambodia	Present				Waterhouse (1993) PIER (2015)
China	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
-Fujian	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
-Guangdong	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
-Guangxi	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
-Guizhou	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
-Hainan	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
-Jiangsu	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
-Jiangxi	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
-Sichuan	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
-Tianjin	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
-Yunnan	Present	Native			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015)
Cocos Islands	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)	Keeling
Hong Kong	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
India	Present	Native			Rajwar (1984) Babu (2009) Kadam et al. (2012) Kirsur et al. (2014) Devi et al. (2015)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present	Native			Dagar and Dagar (1991)
-Maharashtra	Present				CABI (Undated) Kadam et al. (2012)	Pune; Original citation: Deccan College Research Institute (1988-89)
-Punjab	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)	Weed of cultivable lands and orchards
-Rajasthan	Present				Sharma (1981) Babu (2009)
-Tamil Nadu	Present				Devi et al. (2015) Kirsur et al. (2014)
Indonesia	Present				Waterhouse (1993) PROTA (2015)
-Java	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
-Lesser Sunda Islands	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
-Sulawesi	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Iraq	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)
Israel	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)
Japan	Present	Introduced			PIER (2015)	Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands; rasoko, Mikayo
-Ryukyu Islands	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)	Nansei Soto
Jordan	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)
Laos	Present				Waterhouse (1993) Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
Malaysia	Present	Native			Curtis (1894)	Dwarf shrub. Open places near the coast.
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	Native			Henderson (1939)
-Sabah	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Maldives	Present, Localized	Native			PIER (2015)	Malè Atoll (Occasional in coconut plantation)
Myanmar	Present				Waterhouse (1993) PROTA (2015)
Nepal	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Oman	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)
Pakistan	Present, Localized				Missouri Botanical Garden (2015) Abbas et al. (2010) Khuhro et al. (2011) Khan et al. (2012) PROTA (2015)	Common in Sindh and Punjab, rare in N.W.F.P
Philippines	Present				Waterhouse (1993) PIER (2015)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Singapore	Present			Invasive	PIER (2015)	Uncertain if introduced
Sri Lanka	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Taiwan	Present	Native			PIER (2015)
Thailand	Present				Waterhouse (1993) PIER (2015)
Vietnam	Present				Waterhouse (1993) Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
Yemen	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
North America
Anguilla	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Antigua
Bahamas	Present	Introduced	1903		Harshberger (1903)	Great Inagua: Mattewtown
Barbados	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba
-Sint Eustatius	Present	Introduced			UPPRP (2016)
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)	Tortola
Cuba	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Oviedo Prieto et al. (2012) Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
Dominica	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Grenada	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Marie Galant Grande-Terre. St. François, on the way to Pointe des Châteauxe
Haiti	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced			Lagereim (1891)	First reported: Previous to 1891
Martinique	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Mexico	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)	Yucatán, Izamal
Montserrat	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Introduced			UPPRP (2016)	St. Eustatius. Disturbed areas
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) PROTA (2015) USDA-NRCS (2015)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present				Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (1983)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced	1819		Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
Turks and Caicos Islands	Present				Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) Missouri Botanical Garden (2015) USDA-NRCS (2015)	St. Thomas
United States	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-California	Present, Only in captivity/cultivation	Introduced			Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2015)	Oahu. As cultivated, occasionally naturalized
-Texas	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)	Matagorda County; Zapata County
Oceania
Australia	Present	Native			Chaluopka and Domm (1986) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present on all Coral Cays
-Northern Territory	Present	Native			PROTA (2015) PIER (2015)
-Queensland	Present	Native			PIER (2015)
-Western Australia	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Christmas Island	Present	Native			PROTA (2015) Fosberg (1943)	Reported by Ridley in 1891
Cook Islands	Present				PIER (2015)	Manihiki Atoll; Pukapuka Atoll
Federated States of Micronesia	Present	Introduced			PIER (2015)	Yap (Waqab) Island
Fiji	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2015) PROTA (2015)	Introduced and invasive on Vanua Mbalavu Island
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2015)	Tahiti Island (also reported as cultivated); Rangiroa (Rairoa) Atoll; Toau (Tovau) Atoll; Ruturu Island
Guam	Present	Introduced	1902	Invasive	PIER (2015)	Reported by Safford in 1902
Kiribati	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2015)	Banaba (Ocean) Island; Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll (as invasive); Tarawa Atoll
Marshall Islands	Present				PIER (2015)	Jaluit (Jãlwõj) Atoll
Nauru	Present	Native			PROTA (2015) PIER (2015)
New Caledonia	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)	Loyalty Islands
Niue	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced			PIER (2015)	Listed as native for Farallon de Medinilla (Marpi Medinilla) Island; as introduced on: Maug Island, Rota Island, Saipan Island, Sarigan Island and Tinian Island
Palau	Present	Introduced			PIER (2015)	Listed as introduced on the main island group; Sonsorol Island
Papua New Guinea	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
Samoa	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2015)	Barker Island; Jarvis Island
Vanuatu	Present	Native			PROTA (2015)
South America
Brazil	Present				Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)
-Amazonas	Present	Native			Esteves and Takeuchi (2015)	Reported as native, endemic based on Flora of Brazil from 1891
French Guiana	Present	Introduced			PROTA (2015)
Peru	Present	Native			Missouri Botanical Garden (2015) PROTA (2015)	Cusco, disturbed areas.
Suriname	Present				Missouri Botanical Garden (2015)

History of Introduction and Spread

Top of page

A. indicum was probably introduced into the Americas in the 1800’s or early 1900’s (Lagerheim, 1891; Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, 1893; Hasherger 1903; Arthur and Johnston, 1918; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015), although it is sometimes listed as native for some of the countries of this region. For the West Indies it is reported as introduced in the early 1800’s, but in some databases is also reported as native for some of the islands. It is reported as invasive for Cuba (Oviedo-Prieto et al., 2012). The region where A. indicum is most listed as an invasive is Oceania, on Kiribati, Guam, French Polynesia, the US Minor Outlying Islands and Fiji. For some of these islands the species is also reported as cultivated. Although it is reported as invasive for Hawaii, it is noted as mainly cultivated and occasionally naturalized (PIER, 2015).

There is almost no information available on how A. indicum was introduced to various regions or how it has spread. Since it has been used extensively in ethnobotany for centuries in its native range, it can be assumed it was mainly introduced into other areas as a medicinal plant, as it is reported to be used by natives in countries outside its probable original range (Mitchell, 1982; Mohite et al., 2013; PIER 2015). Also outside its native range, there are reports of the use of its fibres for rope-making (Maiti and Chakravarty, 1977; Fuentes Fiallo, 1999; Brussell, 2004).

Risk of Introduction

Top of page

The species is sold over the internet and in nurseries as an ornamental. Although there is almost no documented information on the impact of A. indicum at introduced sites, caution should be exerted until more information is available on the invasiveness of the species.

Habitat

Top of page

A. indicum is found in open, ruderal places in the tropics and subtropics. Reported from roadsides, low bushes, savannas, lakesides, beaches, dunes and roadsides (PROTA, 2015). It is reported near dwellings, disturbed sites and roadsides in some of the countries where it is listed as invasive (Mohite et al., 2013; PIER 2015). Tolerates droughts (PROTA, 2015) and saline environments (Allaway et al., 1984).

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details	Natural
Littoral		Coastal dunes	Present, no further details	Natural

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page

Leaf residue extracts of A. indicum have been evaluated for their effect on the germination and growth of the wheat cultivars, Sind-81, Sind-83 and Sarsabz, and chickpea cv. CM-72. The extracts did not inhibit germination, but stimulated the shoot length of all the cultivars. Root inhibition was found for all, except Sind-81 and chickpea (Alam and Azmi, 1990).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Plant name	Family	Context	References
Morus alba (mora)	Moraceae	Unknown	Kirsur et al. (2014)
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Unknown	Devi et al. (2015)
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Unknown	Khan et al. (2012)

Biology and Ecology

Top of page

Genetics

The IPCN reports vary from 2n=72, 42 or 36 and n=21 (PROTA, 2015).

Reproductive Biology

The following information is from Abid et al. (2010): A. indicum is facultatively autogamous and the flowers are slightly protandrous. Buds take about 18-20 days to open. Flowering is temperature and light dependent, anthesis occurring at 25-30°C and at 1-2:00 pm; on cloudy days opening at 4:00 pm. Flowers remain open for about 6-7 hours, withering after 2 to 5 days. Butterflies (Lepidoptera) and bees (Hymenoptera) are the regular flower visitors. Butterflies do not take any part in pollination; Apis sp. and Bembix sp. have been reported as pollinators.

Physiology and Phenology

Flowering can occur all year (PROTA, 2015). Temperatures below 20°C or higher than 40°C have a negative impact on pollen production and its viability; also on fruit and seed set (Kumar et al., 2012).

Gupta et al. (2001) report that freshly harvested seeds show over 92% of hardseededness in germination experiments and that a hot water treatment at 70°C for 10 minutes is the most effective method for breaking it. Seeds from exhibition cases in a museum in India had 70% germination after 17 years of storage. Seeds were soaked in cold water and filed prior to germination tests (Dent, 1942). These seeds were stored in glass capsules without any special conservation measures.

Associations

A. indicum is reported as a plant host of the fungus Puccinia heterospora, which attacks species of Sida and Abutilon in tropical and subtropical regions (Lagerheim, 1891; Arthur and Johnston, 1918).

Climate

Top of page

Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Tolerated	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Tolerated	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
BS - Steppe climate	Preferred	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers

Air Temperature

Top of page

Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	7
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)		43
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	10

Soil Tolerances

Top of page

Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

light

Special soil tolerances

saline

Natural enemies

Top of page

Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity
Aularches miliaris	Herbivore	Plants\|Leaves	not specific
Dysdercus koenigii	Herbivore		not specific
Dysdercus nigrofasciatus	Herbivore	Fruits\|pods	not specific
Earias insulana	Herbivore	Fruits\|pods; Plants\|Leaves	not specific
Earias vittella	Herbivore	Fruits\|pods; Plants\|Inflorescence	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page

A. indicum is one of the host plants for the moths Earias insulana and E. vitella, which are considered as pests of cotton and okra plants (Saini and Singh, 1999; Syed et al., 2011). The species is reported to become heavily infested by mealybugs (Coccidohystrix sp.) in India (Hayat et al. 2007). Hexomyza abutilonicaulis, Urentius euonymus and Trachys herillus are reported in Pakistan as natural insect enemies of the genus Abutilon (Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control Pakistan Station, 1980; Pajni and Nanda, 1992).

Pathway Causes

Top of page

Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Breeding and propagation	In vitro propagation, for reintroduction to areas in India where is over-harvested		Yes	Rout et al. (2009)
Disturbance	Common weed in disturbed sites		Yes	PROTA (2015)
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Possibly escaping from cultivation and becoming naturalized		Yes	Missouri Botanical Garden (2015); PIER (2015)
Internet sales	Seeds available for sale at various sites that will ship locally or internationally	Yes	Yes
Medicinal use	Used for traditional medicine in various countries		Yes	Pandikumar et al. (2011); Rout et al. (2009)
Ornamental purposes	Sold an ornamental plant on Internet and nurseries	Yes	Yes
Seed trade		Yes	Yes

Pathway Vectors

Top of page

Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Germplasm	Plants propagated in vitro for reintroduction purposes	Yes	Yes	Rout et al. (2009)

Impact Summary

Top of page

Category	Impact
Cultural/amenity	Positive
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative
Human health	Positive

Economic Impact

Top of page

In India, A. indicum is one of the hosts for the red cotton bug, Dysdercus koeniggii, which is considered to be a minor pest on cotton, eggplant, okra and Hibiscus (Wadnerkar et al., 1979). A. indicum plants infested with Earias insulana and E. vitella near cotton fields could carry the infestation into the crops (Saini and Singh, 1999; Syed et al., 2011).

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page

Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Is a habitat generalist
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture

Impact mechanisms

Allelopathic
Pest and disease transmission

Uses

Top of page

Mohite et al. (2012) and Vadnere Gautam et al. (2013) give detailed reviews on the microscopic, phytochemical and pharmacological properties and uses of A. indicum. This includes: hepatoprotective, wound healing, immunomodulatory, analgesic, antimalarial, antimicrobial and hypoglycemic activity, among others. Almost all the parts of this plant are documented as being used. It is used by natives of India, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indochina. In India it is also reported as used by the Santals tribe to treat convulsions, cramps, colic pain, spermatorrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, coughs, bronchitis and menorrhagia in humans and bone fracture in cattle (Jain and Tarafder, 1970). Similar uses are reported for the Nicobarese tribe in India (Dagar and Dagar, 1991). Mathur and Sundaramoorthy (2013) report 18 pharmacological properties and nine body systems treated by the use of this species. Seetharam et al. (2002) report that extracts from A. indicum administered to rats stimulate insulin production causing blood glucose levels to drop. Men in Gujrat, India use the species as an aphrodisiac (Prabhuji et al., 2010). A. indicum is one of the sources of the drug “Bala”, sold in markets in India and used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat various ailments (Deokule and Patale, 2002).

Due to its importance as a medicinal plant in India, studies had been made on A. indicum to establish the protocols for regenerating large number of plantlets in vitro from leaf derived callus cultures. These protocols are the first steps to establish large scale propagation of this species (Rout et al., 2009). In Pakistan, where rearing livestock accounts for 30-40% of income, A. indicum is one of the native species suggested for planting and/or reseeding to improve grazing lands for goats and sheep (Rafiq et al., 2010).

In Australia, A. indicum is used as food, timber and reported to have demulcent properties (Mitchell, 1982). It is also used for its fibres in various countries (Maiti and Chakravarty, 1977; Fuentes Fiallo, 1999; Brussell, 2004).

A. indicum has been studied for the development of botanical pesticides and extracts from the leaves are a feeding deterrent to the tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Elumalai et al., 2008). Prabhuji et al. (2010) report a steroidal compound isolated from the stems of A. indicum with fungicidal and fungistatic properties against various Aspergillus species.

Mathur and Sundaramoorthy (2013) assessed the economic impact and conservation priorities of 123 medicinal plants from the Thar Desert in India. For A. indicum they reported the species not being in cultivation and being highly harvested from the wild due to its medicinal importance. They propose that the species needs to have an immediate conservation priority.

Social Benefit

In India where fluoride contamination related diseases occur in near to 62 million people, A. indicum stems are used to prepare nitric acid activated carbon to remove fluoride ions from contaminated water (Suneetha et al., 2014).

Environmental Services

A. indicum has been suggested as a potential candidate species to be used for the phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils (Varum et al., 2015).

A. indicum is reported as one of the plants which the nymphs of Aularches miliaris feed on. Although this grasshopper is reported as a pest for some crops, it is also listed as a near-threatened species in South India and its conservation is recommended (Josephrajkimar et al., 2011).

Rahuman et al. (2008) tested the larvicidal activity on Culex quinquefasciatus and found high larval mortality when using petroleum ether extract from A. indicum. They also report the presence of β-sitosterol for A. indicum as a new natural mosquito larvicidal agent. Hexane leaf extracts are reported to be effective against the larvae of Aedes aegypti (Tennyson et al., 2012). Previous studies in Thailand showed that A. indicum extracts show potential larval toxicity for Aedes aegyptii and high toxicity to guppy fishes (Promsiri et al., 2006).

Uses List

Top of page

Animal feed, fodder, forage

Forage

General

Research model
Ritual uses
Sociocultural value

Genetic importance

Test organisms (for pests and diseases)

Human food and beverage

Beverage base
Fruits
Leaves (for beverage)
Seeds

Materials

Bark products
Beads
Chemicals
Fibre
Gums
Oils
Pesticide
Resins
Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Traditional/folklore
Veterinary

Ornamental

Propagation material
Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page

A. indicum, A. abutiloides and A. hirtum are all found in similar habitats and have similar growth forms. Abutilon abutiloides has 5-7 mericarps (segments in the fruit), while A. hirtum and A. indicum have 15-25 mericarps. A. hirtum has an orange corolla with a purple centre, while A. indicum has a uniformly yellow corolla (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015).

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Musthafa and Potty (2001) studied the effect of cowpea green manures to control weeds, including A. indicum in semi-dry rice fields. Broadleaf weeds, including A. indicum, were reduced because of the smothering effect of the cowpea.

Chemical Control

The herbicide pendimenthalin, supplemented with hand weeding 6 weeks after seed sowing in rice fields has been effective in controlling A. indicum (Shelke et al., 1986). High doses of the herbicides MCPA, 2,4-D and 2,4-DB are effective for the eradication of the species; however, plants persisting in low populations have an increase in the reproductive potential with a higher flower and fruit production (Mukherjee, 1993).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Top of page

Most of the information available on A. indicum is related to its pharmacological properties, its phytochemistry or the ethnobotanical uses. Although literature reports it as a weed and/or as invasive for some countries or regions, not much information is available about its negative impacts. No information is available on the impacts on the native species or the habitats where it is reported as invasive. On the contrary, it is reported as being threatened because it is over-harvested in some countries. There is also conflicting information about it being native or introduced for some countries, as it is listed as both in different sources for a country. Information about the environmental requirements, reproductive biology, habitats and impacts is scarce or lacking, and needed for a thoughtful evaluation of the invasiveness of the species.

References

Top of page

Abdul Rahuman A; Geetha Gopalakrishnan; Venkatesan P; Kannappan Geetha, 2008. Isolation and identification of mosquito larvicidal compound from Abutilon indicum (Linn.) sweet. Parasitology Research, 102(5):981-988. http://www.springerlink.com/content/l8071n6511088010/?p=63b2c8d62c8343f2a45616df0eb09e0d&pi=22

Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Alam SM; Azmi AR, 1990. Influence of wild plant residue (Abutilon indicum L.) on the germination and seedling growth of wheat and chickpea. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 6(4):385-387.

Allaway WG; Pitman MG; Storey R; Tyerman S; Ashford AE, 1984. Water relations of coral cay vegetation on the Great Barrier Reef: water potentials and osmotic content. Australian Journal of Botany, 32(4):449-464.

Arthur JT; Johnston JR, 1918. Uredinales of Cuba. Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club, 17:97-175.

Balfour B, 1879. Flowering plants and ferns. An Account of the Petrological, Botanical, and Zoological Collections Made in Kerguelen's Land and Rodriguez during the Transit of Venus Expeditions, Carried out by Order of Her Majesty's Government in the Years 1874-75. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 168:326-387.

Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Brussell DE, 2004. A medicinal plant collection from Montserrat, West Indies. Economic Botany, 58(suppl.):s203-s220.

Chaluopka MY; Domm SB, 1986. Role of anthropochory in the invasion of Coral Cays by alien flora. Ecology, 67(6):1536-1547.

Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control Pakistan Station, 1980. Investigations on the insect enemies of Abutilon, Rumex and Sorghum in Pakistan 1978-1979. Report, Pakistan Station, Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control. 19 pp.

Cufodontis G, 1959. Supplement: Enumeratio Plantarum Aethiopiae Spermatopyta (Sequentia). Bulletin du Jardin botanue del l"Etat a Bruxelles, 29(1):533-584.

Curtis C, 1894. A catalogue of the flowering plants and ferns found growing wild in the Island of Penang. Journal of the Straits Branch if the Royal Asiatic Society, 25:67-167.

Dagar HS; Dagar JC, 1991. Plant folk medicines among the Nicobarese of Katchal Island, India. Economic Botany, 45(1):114-119.

Deccan College Research Institute, 1988-89. Archeology of a vacant land in Poona: an experimental study. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 47/48:249-275.

Dent TV, 1942. Some records of extreme longevity of seeds of Indian forest plants. Indian Forester, 68:617-31.

Deokule SS; Patale MW, 2002. Pharmacognostic study of Abutilon indicum, (L.) Sweet. Journal of Phytological Research, 15(1):1-6.

Devi, M. R., Madhavan, S., Baskaran, A., Thangaratham, T., 2015. Ethno medicinal aspects of weeds from paddy field in Thiruvarur district, Tamil Nadu, India. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 4(11), 1909-1920. http://www.wjpr.net/dashboard/abstract_id/4153

Elumalai K; Dhanasekaran S; Veeraiyan G; Meenakshi V, 2008. Feeding deterrent activity of certain plant extracts against the fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner). Journal of Applied Zoological Researches, 19(2):133-138.

Esteves G; Takeuchi C, 2015. Abutilon in Lista de Espécies fa Flora do Brasil (Abutilon in the list of species of the flora of Brazil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB106882

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Flora Zambesiaca, 2015. Flora Zambesiaca online (eFloras). Richmond, Surrey, UK: Kew Databases. http://apps.kew.org/efloras/search.do

Fosberg FR, 1943. Notes on plants of the Pacific Islands-III. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 70(4):386-397.

Fuentes Fiallo VR, 1999. Notes on the economic flora of Cuba. I. Fibre producing species. (Apuntes para la flora económica de Cuba I. Especies productoras de fibras.) Revista del Jardín Botánico Nacional, 20:57-82.

Hanif A; Hossan S; Mia MK; Islam MJ; Jahan R; Rahmatullah M, 2009. Ethnobotanical survey of the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hills Tracts region of Bangladesh. American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 3(2):172-180.

Harshberger JW, 1903. Notes on the strand flora of Great Inagua, Haiti and Jamaica. Torreya, 3(5):67-70.

Henderson MR, 1939. The flora of the limestone hills of the Malay Peninsula. J. Malay. Br. Asiat. Soc, 17(1):13-87.

India Biodiversity Portal, 2016. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

Jain SK; Tarafder CR, 1970. Medicinal plant-lore of the Santals: (A revival of P. Bodding's work). Economic Botany, 24(3):241-278.

Josephrajkumar A; Rajan P; Mohanan RC; Jacob PM, 2011. Management and conservation dilemmas surrounding a near-threatened grasshopper, Aularches miliaris Linn. (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae) in south India. Journal of Orthoptera Research, 20(1):103-107. http://www.bioone.org/loi/orth

Khan, R. U., Wazir, S. M., Muhammad Subhan, Saad Ullah, Hidayat Ullah, Aysha Farooq, Farheen Jaffar, Shazia, Shah, I. A., Mustafa Kamal, 2012. Weed flora of sugarcane in district Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 18(4), 541-552. http://www.wssp.org.pk/article.htm

Kirsur, M. V., Sakthivel, N., Mahimasanthi, A., Balasaraswathi, S., Bindroo, B. B., 2014. Weed hosts of papaya mealy bug (Paracoccus marginatus) in mulberry ecosystem of Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Sericulture, 53(1), 78-80.

Kumar P; Chauhan S; Rana A, 2012. Impact of temperature on reproductive biology of Abutilon indicum (L,) Sweet (Malvaceae). The International Journal of Plant Reproduction Biology, 4(2):127-131.

Lagereim G, 1891. Observations on new species of fungi from North and South America. The Journal of Mycology, 7(1):44-50.

Liogier AH, 1994. Descriptive flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands, Vol. III. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico, 461 pp.

Maiti RK; Chakravarty K, 1977. A comparative study of yield components and quality of common Indian bast fibres. Economic Botany, 31(1):55-60.

Manish Mathur; Sundaramoorthy S, 2013. Economic assessment and conservation priorities of the Indian Thar desert medicinal plants. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources, 4(3):283-294. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/54

Mayank Varun; Disha Jaggi; D'Souza R; Paul MS; Bhumesh Kumar, 2015. Abutilon indicum L.: a prospective weed for phytoremediation. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187(8):527. http://rd.springer.com/journal/10661

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Mitchell AS, 1982. Economic aspects of the Malvaceae in Australia. Economic Botany, 36(3):313-322.

Mohammad Hayat; Badrudding SMA; Khan FR, 2007. On some chalcids reared from a mealybug infesting Abutilon Indicum in Aligarh, U.P. Bionotes, 9(2):65.

Mohite MS; Shelar PA; Raje VN; Babar SJ; Sapkal RK, 2012. Review on pharmacological properties of Abutilon indicum. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 2(4):156-160. http://asianpharmaonline.org/AJPR/8_AJPR_2_4_2012.pdf

Moreau RE; Moreau WM, 1931. The bird population of a settled valley in the West Usambaras, Tanganyika Territory. Journal of Ecology, 19(1):64-74.

Mukherjee A, 1993/1994. Effect of certain phenoxy herbicides on mortality, growth and seed output of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. Acta Botanica Hungarica, 38(1/4):335-343.

Musthafa K; Potty NN, 2001. Effect of in situ green manuring on weeds in rice. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 39(2):172-174; 13 ref.

Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.

Pajni HR; Nanda N, 1992. Some observations of the biology of Acallopistus species (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Abutilon indicum. Journal of The Bombay Natural History Society, 89(3):388-389.

Pandikumar P; Chellappandian M; Mutheeswaran S; Ignacimuthu S, 2011. Consensus of local knowledge on medicinal plants among traditional healers in Mayiladumparai block of Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 134(2):354-362. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8D-51TGG3X-1&_user=10&_coverDate=03%2F24%2F2011&_rdoc=23&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_origin=browse&_zone=rslt_list_item&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235084%232011%23998659997%233001751%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5084&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=44&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=6b321cca0de8d8b54be5a2c745e8b3f0&searchtype=a

PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Prabhuji SK; Singh DK; Srivastava AK; Rahul Sinha, 2010. Antifungal activity of a new steroid isolated from Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. Medicinal Plants - International Journal of Phytomedicines and Related Industries, 2(3):215-218. http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:mpijpri&volume=2&issue=3&article=007

Promsiri S; Naksathhhit A; Kruatrachue M; Thavara U, 2006. Evaluations of larvicidal activitiy of medicinal plant extracts to Aedes aegypti (Diptera:Culicidae) and other effects on a non target fish. Insect Science, 13:179-188.

PROTA, 2015. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info

Rafiq MK; Javed Afzal; Jasra AW; Imtiaz Ahmad; Khan TN; Farooq MU, 2010. Foraging preferences of free-ranging sheep and goats on the native vegetation of Rangelands of Pubbi hills in Pakistan. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 12(6):944-946. http://www.fspublishers.org/ijab/past-issues/IJABVOL_12_NO_6/28.pdf

Rajwar GS, 1984. A note on phytogeographical analysis of the flora of the Garhwal Siwalik Hills, India. Journal of Biogeography, 11(3):261-264.

Ridley HN, 1891. A day at Christmas Island. Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 23:123-140.

Rout JR; Mishra M; Das R; Sahoo SL, 2009. In vitro micropropagation of Abutilon indicum L. through leaf explants. Plant Tissue Culture and Biotechnology, 19(2):177-184.

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 1983. Flora of St. Vincent and adjacent Islets. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 81:231-296.

Royal Gardens Kew, 1894. Flora of Aldabra Islands. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 89:146-151.

Royal Gardens Kew, 1984. Botany of the Hadramaut Expedition. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 93. 328-343.

Rubina Abid; Jan Alam; Qaiser M, 2010. Pollination mechanism and role of insects in Abutilon indicum (L.) sweet. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 42(3):1395-1399. http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/42(3)/PJB42(3)1395.pdf

Safford WE, 1902. Extracts from the note-book of a naturalist on the island of Guam-I. The Plant World, 5(9):161-168.

Safford WE, 1912. Notes of a naturalist afloat: V. American Fern Journal, 2(4):97-107.

Saini RK; Ram Singh, 1999. Host plant preference for oviposition by the spiny bollworm Earias insulana Boisd. (Lep., Noctuidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 123(4):241-245.

Seetharam YN; Gururaj Chalageri; Setty SR; Bheemachar, 2002. Hypoglycemic activity of Abutilon indicum leaf extracts in rats. Fitoterapia, 73(2):156-159.

Sharma BM, 1981. A phytosociological study of a weed community in fallow land in the semi-arid zone of India. Weed Science, 29(3):287-291.

Shelke DK; Bhosle RH; Jadhav NS, 1986. Integrated weed management in upland irrigated rice in Marathwada. International Rice Research Newsletter, 11(4):39-40.

Snead RE; Tasnif M, 1966. Vegetation types in the Las Bela region of West Pakistan. Ecology, 47(3):494-499.

Suneetha M; Sundar BS; Ravindhranath K, 2014. Studies on fluoride removal from polluted waters using active carbon derived from stems of Abutilon indicum plant. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 6(10):574-592. http://jocpr.com/vol6-iss10-2014/JCPR-2014-6-10-574-592.pdf

Syed TS; Abro GH; Khanum A; Sattar M, 2011. Effect of host plants on the biology of Earias vittella (Fab) (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) under laboratory conditions. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 43(1):127-132.

Tennyson S; Ravindran KJ; Arivoli S, 2012. Bioefficacy of botanical insecticides against the dengue and chikungunya vector Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera:Culicidae). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2(3, Supplement):S1842-S1844.

UPPRP, 2016. UPPRP Herbarium database. http://herbario.uprrp.edu/

USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Vadnere Gautam P; Pathan Aslam R; Kulkarni Bharti U, 2013. Abutilons indicum Linn: a phytopharmacological review. International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Chemistry, 3(1):153-156.

Veena Gupta; Anjali Kak; Vivek Mitter; Singh BB, 2001. Techniques to remove hard seededness in the wild medicinal plant Abutilon indicum. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 23(3):369-371.

Wadnerkar DW; Gaikawad BB; Thombre UT, 1979. New record of an alternate host plant of red cotton bug, Dysdercus koenigii (Fab.). Indian Journal of Entomology, 41(2):185.

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp.

Yoneyama T; Muraoka T; Kim TH; Dacanay EV; Nakanishi Y, 1997. The natural 15N abundance of sugarcane and neigbouring plants in Brazil, the Philippines and Mikayo (Japan). Plant and Soil, 189(2):239-244.

Distribution References

Abbas G, Arif M J, Muhammad Ashfaq, Muhammad Aslam, Shafqat Saeed, 2010. Host plants distribution and overwintering of cotton mealybug (Phenacoccus solenopsis; Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 12 (3), 421-425. http://www.fspublishers.org/ijab/past-issues/IJABVOL_12_NO_3/20.pdf

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Babu S R, 2009. Records of overwintering adults of red cotton bug, Dysdercus cingulatus Gab. in different host plants of southern humid zone of Rajasthan. Insect Environment. 14 (4), 176-177.

Balfour B, 1879. Flowering plants and ferns. An Account of the Petrological, Botanical, and Zoological Collections Made in Kerguelen's Land and Rodriguez during the Transit of Venus Expeditions, Carried out by Order of Her Majesty's Government in the Years 1874-75. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 168 326-387.

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Chaluopka MY, Domm SB, 1986. Role of anthropochory in the invasion of Coral Cays by alien flora. In: Ecology, 67 (6) 1536-1547.

Cufodontis G, 1959. Supplement: Enumeratio Plantarum Aethiopiae Spermatopyta (Sequentia). In: Bulletin du Jardin botanue del l"Etat a Bruxelles, 29 (1) 533-584.

Curtis C, 1894. A catalogue of the flowering plants and ferns found growing wild in the Island of Penang. In: Journal of the Straits Branch if the Royal Asiatic Society, 25 67-167.

Dagar H S, Dagar J C, 1991. Plant folk medicines among the Nicobarese of Katchal Island, India. Economic Botany. 45 (1), 114-119. DOI:10.1007/BF02860056

Devi M R, Madhavan S, Baskaran A, Thangaratham T, 2015. Ethno medicinal aspects of weeds from paddy field in Thiruvarur district, Tamil Nadu, India. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 4 (11), 1909-1920. http://www.wjpr.net/dashboard/abstract_id/4153

Esteves G, Takeuchi C, 2015. Abutilon in the list of species of the flora of Brazil. (Abutilon in Lista de Espécies fa Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB106882

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri; Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Flora Zambesiaca, 2015. Flora Zambesiaca online (eFloras)., Richmond, Surrey, UK: Kew Databases. http://apps.kew.org/efloras/search.do

Fosberg FR, 1943. Notes on plants of the Pacific Islands-III. In: Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 70 (4) 386-397.

Hanif A, Hossan S, Mia MK, Islam MJ, Jahan R, Rahmatullah M, 2009. Ethnobotanical survey of the Rakhain tribe inhabiting the Chittagong Hills Tracts region of Bangladesh. In: American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 3 (2) 172-180.

Harshberger JW, 1903. Notes on the strand flora of Great Inagua, Haiti and Jamaica. In: Torreya, 3 (5) 67-70.

Henderson M R, 1939. The flora of the limestone hills of the Malay Peninsula. J. Malay. Br. Asiat. Soc. 17 (1), 13-87.

Kadam R M, Sumia Fatima, Mumtaz Baig, Kadam V B, 2012. A survey report of leaf spot diseases of certain medicinal plants of Maharashtra, India. International Journal of Plant Protection. 5 (1), 185-186. http://www.hindagrihorticulturalsociety.co.in/ijpp.html

Khan R U, Wazir S M, Muhammad Subhan, Saad Ullah, Hidayat Ullah, Aysha Farooq, Farheen Jaffar, Shazia, Shah I A, Mustafa Kamal, 2012. Weed flora of sugarcane in district Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research. 18 (4), 541-552. http://www.wssp.org.pk/article.htm

Khuhro S N, Kalroo A M, Mahmood R, 2011. Present status of mealy bug Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) on cotton and other plants in Sindh (Pakistan). In: World Cotton Research Conference-5, Mumbai, India, 7-11 November 2011 [World Cotton Research Conference-5, Mumbai, India, 7-11 November 2011.], [ed. by Kranthi K R, Venugopalan M V, Balasubramanya R H, Kranthi S, Singh S, Blaise]. New Delhi, India: Excel India Publishers. 268-271. http://icac.org/meetings/wcrc/wcrc5/Proceedings.pdf

Kirsur M V, Sakthivel N, Mahimasanthi A, Balasaraswathi S, Bindroo B B, 2014. Weed hosts of papaya mealy bug (Paracoccus marginatus) in mulberry ecosystem of Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Sericulture. 53 (1), 78-80.

Lagereim G, 1891. Observations on new species of fungi from North and South America. In: The Journal of Mycology, 7 (1) 44-50.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Moreau RE, Moreau WM, 1931. The bird population of a settled valley in the West Usambaras, Tanganyika Territory. In: Journal of Ecology, 19 (1) 64-74.

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff M G, et al, 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba. 6 (Special Issue No. 1), 22-96.

PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

PROTA, 2015. PROTA4U web database., [ed. by Grubben GJH, Denton OA]. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info

Rajwar GS, 1984. A note on phytogeographical analysis of the flora of the Garhwal Siwalik Hills, India. In: Journal of Biogeography, 11 (3) 261-264.

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 1983. Flora of St. Vincent and adjacent Islets. In: Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 81 231-296.

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Sharma B M, 1981. A phytosociological study of a weed community in fallow land in the semi-arid zone of India. Weed Science. 29 (3), 287-291.

UPPRP, 2016. UPPRP Herbarium database., http://herbario.uprrp.edu/

USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Waterhouse D F, 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR. v + 141 pp.

Contributors

Top of page

13/04/2016 Original text by:

Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez

Distribution Maps

Top of page

You can pan and zoom the map

Save map

Unsupported Web Browser:

One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.

Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.

More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/

Datasheet

Abutilon indicum (country mallow)

Toolbox