Abelmoschus moschatus
(musk mallow)

Preferred Common Name

• musk mallow

Other Scientific Names

• Abelmoschus betulifolia Wall.
• Abelmoschus chinensis Wall.
• Abelmoschus ciliaris Walp.
• Abelmoschus cryptocarpus Walp.
• Abelmoschus cubensis Walp.
• Abelmoschus cucurbitaceus Walp.
• Abelmoschus haenkeanus C.Presl
• Abelmoschus marianus C.Presl
• Abelmoschus palustris Walp.
• Abelmoschus pseudoabelmoschus (Blume) Walp.
• Abelmoschus roseus Walp.
• Abelmoschus sublobatus C.Presl
• Hibiscus abelmoschus L.
• Hibiscus collinsianus Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray
• Hibiscus moschatus (Medik.) Salisb.

International Common Names

• English: annual hibiscus; musk okra; musky-seeded hibiscus; native rosella; ornamental okra; tropical jewel hibiscus
• Spanish: abelmosco; algalia; almisclillo; almisquillo; almizcle; ambarcillo
• French: ambrette; gombo musqué; graine de musc; guimauve veloutée; ketmie des marais; ketmie musquée
• Chinese: huang kui

Local Common Names

• Cuba: ambarina
• Dominican Republic: albalia; albangalia; algalia; medic
• Germany: Bisamstrauch; Eibisch, Bisam-; Eibisch, Moschus-
• Haiti: gombo marron; gumbo
• India: jangli bhindi; kaattu kasturi; kalkasturi; kasturi-dana; latakasturi; mushakdan; mushkdana
• Indonesia: gandapura; kakapasan; kasturi
• Italy: ambretta
• Lesser Antilles: gombo maudi; gombo modi
• Malaysia: kapas hantu; kapas hutan
• Myanmar: balu-wah; kon-kado; taw-wah
• Netherlands: abelmos; amberbloem; muskuszaad
• Philippines: dalupang; kastiokastiokan; kastuli
• Puerto Rico: almizcle vegetal; caballo asi; malva almizclera
• Thailand: chamot-ton; mahakadaeng; som-chaba
• Vietnam: búp vàng; cây bông vàng

EPPO code

• ABMMO (Abelmoschus moschatus)

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Malvales
•                         Family: Malvaceae
•                             Genus: Abelmoschus
•                                 Species: Abelmoschus moschatus

Malvaceae is a large family of flowering plants containing 243 genera and approximately 4,225 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees distributed primarily across the tropics, but with some species also occurring in subtropical and temperate regions of the world (Stevens, 2017).

Abelmoschus is a small genus comprising approximately 10-14 species native to South Asia, Australia and the Southwest Pacific (The Plant List, 2018). Several subspecies have been described in India, regions of Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands, but the delimitation of species and other infraspecific taxa is still problematic within this genus. The species A. moschatus, A. manihot, and A. esculentus comprise wild and cultivated forms, while the remaining species are truly wild (Patil et al., 2015).

Abelmoschus moschatus is a very variable species with sub-classifications. At least three subspecies are recognized: A. moschatus ssp. moschatus, ssp. biakensis and ssp. tuberosus (Ravindran, 2017).

Muskmallow is an annual or biennial erect shrub, 1–2 m tall that has a taproot or tuberous root. The whole plant is hairy and the stem is usually solid, sometimes hollow; the shoot tip and petioles have many sharp bristles, rarely sparsely hairy or glabrous. The leaves are simple, alternate, hairy, very variable in size and shape, 6–22 cm × 8–24 cm; the lower leaves are orbicular to elliptical, with a cordate base and are palmately lobed or parted; higher leaves are usually narrower, hastate or sagitate with oblong– lanceolate lobes. The petiole is 6–30 cm long; stipules are linear–filiform and with simple hairs. Flowers are large, showy, axillary and solitary; the pedicel is 2–19 cm long. The epicalyx segments are 4–10 and may go up to 16, free, persistent, linear– lanceolate or oblong, not enveloping the entire fruit, usually acute and hairy. The calyx is spathaceous, apex five-toothed, splitting on one side during expansion of the corolla, adnate to and falling with the corolla; outside is stellate–tomentose and inside sericeous. Petals are five, obovate, yellow or rarely white to red with a crimson centre. They are scattered with gland-hairs or glabrous, apex rounded, base fleshy and ciliate with simple hairs. The staminal column is much shorter than the petals, glabrous, covered with anthers throughout, usually yellow with a dark purple base. The ovary is superior, ovoid, five-celled and hirsute, with a single style, which branches out and ends in discoid stigmas. The fruit is a dry, dehiscent capsule, many seeded, ovoid or globose, with stiff hairs, black or dark brown when dry. Seeds are reniform, 3–4.5 mm long, mostly glabrous, concentrically ribbed and somewhat warty. They are black–brown and often smell of musk (Ravindran, 2017).

A. moschatus has been extensively introduced across tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world mostly as an ornamental and medicinal herb. It is also cultivated for the musk-like oil contained in its seeds, which is valued for perfume and for use in the cosmetic industry (PROSEA, 2016; GRIIS, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).

In the Caribbean, A. moschatus was first reported as "naturalized” in Jamaica in 1864 (Grisebach, 1864). On the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe, this species has been listed as naturalized and cultivated since 1897 (Duss, 1972; Grenand et al., 2012).

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

A. moschatus spreads by seeds and vegetatively by small tubers and stem fragments or cuttings (ANPSA, 2010; Florabank, 2018). Fruits are capsules containing numerous small seeds (less than 4 mm) that are easily dispersed when dried and split open. Seeds can also be dispersed by waterways, animals and by humans (India Biodiversity, 2018; PROSEA, 2016).

A. moschatus is regarded as weedy outside its natural habitats. It has repeatedly escaped from cultivation and has the potential to become naturalized and to colonize different habitats in cultivated, ruderal and semi-natural areas (ANPSA, 2010; PROSEA, 2016; Florabank, 2018). Once established, this species may behave as a weed exhibiting competitive and aggressive behaviour resulting in competition with, and displacement of, native plant species. It has become invasive in many areas across the Asia-Pacific region where it is threatening the growth and survival of native flora and fauna (ISGG, 2006; ANPSA, 2010; Sankaran and Suresh, 2013; GISD, 2018; GRIIS, 2018; PIER, 2018).

A. moschatus is also harmful because of its role as a host for the insect Dysdercus cingulatus, which is a severe pest of cotton crops (Kohno and Ngan, 2004; ISSG, 2006; Sankaran and Suresh, 2013).

A. moschatus is sometimes commercialized as an ornamental for its colourful and attractive flowers. Ambrette oil is used in luxury perfumery, cosmetics and as an additive in the preparation of some kinds of chewing tobacco, baked products, sweets, alcoholic (e.g. vermouth and bitters) and non-alcoholic drinks (Orwa et al., 2009; PROSEA, 2016). Worldwide, India, Colombia, Ecuador and Martinique are the main producers of ambrette oil. In India, the area cultivated with A. moschatus is rapidly increasing (Oudhia, 2015). 

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Gregarious
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of successional patterns
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Rapid growth
• Rooting

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Productive Uses and Management

A. moschatus is a multipurpose plant, valued especially for its essential oil, but also as a source of food, medicines and a range of commodities. It is often planted as an ornamental, aromatic and medicinal herb. The oil extracted from the seeds, known as ambrette oil, has a strong musky odor and is used in both the perfume industry and in aromatherapy. Seeds are used to flavour coffee, burned as incense and used in making incense sticks (agarbattis). Extracts of the fruit and upper parts of the plant have insecticidal qualities, and in India and Malaysia seeds are placed between clothes to deter insects (Orwa et al., 2009; Sankaran and Suresh, 2013; Fern, 2014; PROSEA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2018).

Social benefit

As a spice A. moschatus is not widely used, although there are still many dishes where seed powder and oil are incorporated. Its most widespread use is in flavouring coffee and tea, mainly in Islamic countries of the Middle East and adjoining regions. In Saudi Arabia, seeds are also used to flavour soups. Young leaves and shoots are used as a vegetable in soups; unripe pods are used just like okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). Seeds are fried and roasted and used to flavour various dishes. Essential oil is used in baked goods, ice cream, sweets, soft drinks and alcoholic drinks. A. moschatus is used in many western dishes such as: caramel musk muffins, musky honey wings, musk-vanilla ice cream, musk waffles, ginger cinnamon and musk tea, golden cinnamon and musk brioche loaves, iced cinnamon and musk rolls, orange musk French toast, red musk candy, cinnamon syrup, musk apple cake, muscadine comfits and alcoholic drinks like hippocras with musk.

A. moschatus plants and seeds are regarded as medicinal in South Asia, China and in other countries where it is grown. A. moschatus is used in traditional and Ayurveda herbal medicine. Its uses range from being used as an antidote for snakebites to a decoction of the roots and leaves being taken as a remedy for gonorrhea and rheumatism. Seeds (known commonly as musk daana in India) are described as diuretic, anti-spasmodic, stomachic, nervine (curative for nervous disorders) and are used externally for skin diseases and itching. Root and leaf paste and mucilage are indicated in venereal diseases, urinary discharges and painful micturition. Seeds steeped in water are used against colds, flu and asthma. It is used as antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, anti-anxiety drug, aphrodisiac, appetite stimulant, cardiotonic, carminative, deodorant, anti-depressant, anti-diabetic, antidiarrhoea, digestive, diuretic, anti-dyspepsia, hyperglycaemic, ophthalmic (Orwa et al., 2009; Grenand et al., 2012; Oudhia, 2015; PROSEA, 2016; Ravindran, 2017). It is also used in the treatment of respiratory and skin disorders; however, most of these actions have not been confirmed through rigorous experimentation.

Seed oil is widely employed in aromatherapy. Seed-oil massage is used for relieving stress, fatigue and anxiety. It is also used for cramps, muscle aches, depression and nervous complaints (Ravindran, 2017).