Cyperus iria (rice flatsedge)

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Inflorescence of Cyperus iria

Inflorescence simple or compound, usually open, 1-20 cm long and 1-20 cm wide, with groups of spikes either sessile or on 0.5-15.0-cm-long peduncles (rays).

NOVARTIS

Cyperys iria

Cyperus iria.

R.K. Malik

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Cyperus iria L. (1753)

Preferred Common Name

rice flatsedge

Other Scientific Names

Chlorocyperus iria (L.) Rikli (1895)

International Common Names

English: grasshopper's cyperus

Local Common Names

Bangladesh: barachucha
Brazil: tiririca-do-brejo
Cambodia: kak kangkep
India: morphula
Indonesia: dekeng wangin; djekeng; nyur-nyuran; rumput jekeng kunyit; umbung
Japan: kogomegeyatsuri
Korea, DPR: chambang-donsani
Malaysia: rumput menderong
Nepal: chow; guchen; mothey; ochumani
Pakistan: khana
Philippines: alinang; ballayang; payong-payong; sirau-sirau; sudsud; taga-taga
Thailand: kok huadaeng; yaa rangkaa khaao
USA: rice flatsedge

EPPO code

CYPIR (Cyperus iria)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Cyperaceae
Genus: Cyperus
Species: Cyperus iria

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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C. iria was first described by Linnaeus (1753). It originated in the Old World tropics and subtropics and is one of approximately 650 species in the genus Cyperus (Haines and Lye, 1983). Courtoisia, Kyllinga, Mariscus and Pycreus are included in the genus Cyperus (Haines and Lye, 1983) though they are often cited as genera in their own right. Under the classification of Lye (1981), C. iria is in the subgenus Cyperus which contains about 300 species, including the common and important sedge weeds C. rotundus and C. esculentus.

Description

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The height of C. iria plants varies from 8 to 60 cm. The roots are numerous, short and yellowish-red. The culms are tufted, triangular, glabrous, green and 0.6-3.0 mm thick. The leaves are linear-lanceolate, usually all shorter than the culm, 1-8 mm wide, flat, and scabrid on the margin and major ribs; leaf sheaths are green to reddish-brown, membraneous and envelope the culm at the base.

The inflorescence is simple or compound, usually open, 1-20 cm long and 1-20 cm wide, with groups of spikes which are either sessile or on 0.5-15.0 cm long peduncles (rays). Inflorescence bracts (involucre) are leafy, three to five (occasionally seven), the lower one longer than the inflorescence, 5-30 cm long, 1-6 mm wide. The spikes are sessile or almost so, elongate, and rather dense. Spikelets are erect-spreading, crowded, 6-24-flowered, 2-13 mm long, 1.5-2.0 mm wide, golden to yellowish-green.

Glumes are broad-ovate, 1.0-1.6 mm long, golden-brown. There are two or three stamens. The style is 3-branched. The fruit is a small achene (nutlet), 1.0-1.5 mm long, 0.6-0.7 mm wide, obovate, triangular in cross section, dark-brown to almost black; the surface is almost smooth. These descriptions are based on Haines and Lye (1983) and Holm et al. (1977).

Distribution

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C. iria is most often found as a weed in Japan, the Pacific Islands and Australia to the south, and through India to the west. Outside Asia, it has been reported in southern and western Africa and in the USA (Holm et al., 1977). It has also been recorded in Kenya (Napper, 1966), Uganda (Haines and Lye, 1983; Napper, 1966) and Brazil (Lorenzi, 1982).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Reference	Notes
Africa
Burkina Faso	Present	Clayton (1972)
Eswatini	Present	Holm et al. (1979)
Gambia	Present	Terry (1981)
Ghana	Present	Clayton (1972)
Kenya	Present	Haines and Lye (1983)
Mali	Present	Clayton (1972)
Nigeria	Present	Clayton (1972)
Senegal	Present	Clayton (1972)
Tanzania	Present	Haines and Lye (1983)
Uganda	Present	Haines and Lye (1983)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Holm et al. (1979)
Bangladesh	Present	Moody (1989)
Bhutan	Present	Parker (1992)
Brunei	Present	Waterhouse (1993)
Cambodia	Present	Moody (1989)
China	Present	CABI (Undated) He YunHe and Qiang Sheng (2014)	Original citation: Wang, 1990
-Anhui	Present	He YunHe and Qiang Sheng (2014)
-Guangdong	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang, 1990
-Hebei	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang, 1990
-Jiangsu	Present	Jiang et al. (1989)
-Shaanxi	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang, 1990
-Xinjiang	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang, 1990
-Yunnan	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang, 1990
Hong Kong	Present	Yip (1976)
India	Present	CABI (Undated a) Duary and Mukherjee (2013) Gupta et al. (2013) Kiran and Rao (2013) Nayak and Satapathy (2015)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present	Singh and Gangwar (1986)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present	Kiran and Rao (2013)
-Assam	Present	Kurmi and Das (1993)
-Haryana	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Malik et al. (1981)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Bansal and Singh (1986)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Kaul (1986) Gupta et al. (2013)
-Karnataka	Present, Widespread	Sastry et al. (1980)
-Kerala	Present	George et al. (1990)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	Sharma and Thakur (1993)
-Manipur	Present	Singh and Singh (1988)
-Meghalaya	Present	Neogi and Rao (1982)
-Odisha	Present	Jena and Patro (1990) Nayak and Satapathy (2015)
-Punjab	Present	CABI (Undated) Muhammad Tauseef et al. (2012)	Original citation: Sidhu et al. (1982)
-Tamil Nadu	Present	Kandasamy and Palaniappan (1990)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Singh and Singh (1985)
-West Bengal	Present	Mukhopadhyay (1982) Duary and Mukherjee (2013)
Indonesia	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Kostermans et al., 1987
Japan	Present, Widespread	Numata and Yoshizawa (1975)
-Honshu	Present	Numata and Yoshizawa (1975)
-Kyushu	Present	Numata and Yoshizawa (1975)
-Ryukyu Islands	Present	Numata and Yoshizawa (1975)
-Shikoku	Present	Numata and Yoshizawa (1975)
Laos	Present	Moody (1989)
Malaysia	Present	Barnes and Chan (1990) Hakim et al. (2013)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	Hakim et al. (2013)
Myanmar	Present	Moody (1989)
Nepal	Present	Ranjit and Bhattarai (1988)
Pakistan	Present	Moody (1989) Muhammad Tauseef et al. (2012)
Philippines	Present, Widespread	Moody et al. (1984)
Singapore	Present	Waterhouse (1993)
South Korea	Present	Park and Kim (1971) Hwang KiSeon et al. (2015)
Sri Lanka	Present	Weerakoon and Gunewardena (1983)
Taiwan	Present	Anon (1968)
Thailand	Present	Noda et al. (1985)
Vietnam	Present	Minh Si (1969)
North America
Cuba	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wazniak, 1976
Dominican Republic	Present	Holm et al. (1979)
Puerto Rico	Present	Liu and Lozano (1987)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Holm et al. (1979)
United States	Present	Holm et al. (1979)
-Louisiana	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Baker and Shrefler (1983)
-Mississippi	Present	Riley et al. (1986)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Groves (1991)
-Queensland	Present	Groves (1991)
Fiji	Present	Holm et al. (1979)
New Zealand	Present	James et al. (2011)
South America
Brazil	Present	Lorenzi (1982) Mesquita et al. (2013)
-Amazonas	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Bahia	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Espirito Santo	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Goias	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Maranhao	Present	Lorenzi (1982) Mesquita et al. (2013)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Para	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Parana	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Piaui	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Rondonia	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Santa Catarina	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Lorenzi (1982)
Colombia	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Häfliger et al. (1982)
Ecuador	Present	Lopez et al. (1974)
Venezuela	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Häfliger et al. (1982)

Risk of Introduction

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None known.

Habitat

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C. iria is found in moist-to-wet soils, including river banks and ditches. It is an important weed of lowland and irrigated ricefields but is less important in the upland crop.

Hosts/Species Affected

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C. iria is principally a weed of rice around the world but Holm et al. (1977) also noted its occurrence in bananas, cassava, groundnuts, maize, pastures, pineapples, sweet potatoes, tea and vegetables.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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C. iria is an annual sedge, sometimes behaving as a perennial. It propagates from seed (achenes or nutlets); a large plant can produce up to 5000 progeny (Holm et al., 1977). Forty percent of fresh seeds can germinate immediately and most dormant seeds can germinate only following a short period of after-ripening (Chozin and Nakagawa, 1988). Storage in darkness at low temperature, or in submerged soil, causes seeds to enter secondary dormancy. Light is required for optimum germination but germination in darkness, in upland soil, can be stimulated by alternating temperatures (20/35°C). Seeds of C. iria germinate at 15-40°C but an alternating temperature regime of 20/30°C is optimum. Seeds germinate well on the soil surface but few emerge from depths below 1 cm (Chozin and Nakagawa, 1988). C. iria is somewhat less able to germinate under water than C. difformis. Civico and Moody (1979) show that it may germinate under 1 cm of water but early development is suppressed at depths of 2.5 cm or more.

Chromosome numbers vary in C. iria (n=56, 64) and intraspecific variation in genotype and phenotype occurs (Bir et al., 1992). Natural hybridization can occur between C. iria and C. microiria (Chozin and Yasuda, 1991) to produce progeny of new-type plants of similar dormancy to the parents, showing clear segregation in spikelet characteristics and floret morphology. C. iria has Kranz-type leaf anatomy and, like C. rotundus, has two layers of bundle sheath cells (Lin et al., 1982). This is indicative of C4 photosynthesis which is generally not a characteristic of weeds growing in wet habitats.

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Phoma cyperi sp. nov. is described from C. iria in India where it shows specificity towards nut sedges and produces at least one phytotoxin (Upadhyay et al., 1990). Cuscuta chinensis uses C. iria for mechanical support but, although haustoria are produced on the leaf lamina, there is no vascular contact between host and parasite (Mohanty and Rath, 1987). For pests and diseases of rice which also occur on C. iria, see Economic Impact.

Impact

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C. iria is rated by Holm et al. (1977) as one of the three most important weeds of rice in Sri Lanka, India and the Philippines. It is a principal weed in Indonesia and Japan and a common weed in Fiji, Thailand and the USA. It is principally a weed of rice around the world but Holm et al. (1977) also noted its occurrence in bananas, cassava, groundnuts, maize, pastures, pineapples, sweet potatoes, tea and vegetables. It is difficult to separate the competitive effects of C. iria from those of other components of the weed flora but the weed caused 40% yield reductions in rice (Ampong-Nyarko and DeDatta, 1991).

The costs of controlling C. iria, whether manual, mechanical or chemical, are significant. C. iria is a host for several pests of rice. In Cuba, it is a host of the rice nematodes Pratylenchus zeae and Hirschmanniella spinicaudata (Fernandez and Ortega, 1982). Criconemella onoensis is a rice nematode which uses C. iria as a host in the southern USA. Complete control of the weed is necessary before nematicides (e.g. fensulfothion) can be effective in increasing rice yields (Hollis, 1972).

Arthropod rice pests which use C. iria as a host plant include Scotinophara latiuscula (Barrion and Litsinger, 1987), Nisia atrovenosa (Cruz and Dela-Cruz, 1986), Lissorhoptrus brevirostris (Meneses-Carbonell and Carbonell, 1985), Nymphula depunctalis (Pillai and Nair, 1979), Baliothrips biformis and B. holorphnus (Ananthakrishnan and Kandasamy, 1977).

Pathogens of rice that have been reported on C. iria include Pyricularia oryzae [Magnaporthe grisea] (Singh and Singh, 1988), Rhizoctonia solani (Gokulapalan and Nair, 1983) and Acrocylindrium oryzae [Sarocladium oryzae] (Balakrishnan and Nair, 1981). Also the nematode Pratylenchus zeae (Waterhouse, 1994).

Uses List

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Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Detection and Inspection

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The experienced eye can detect seeds of C. iria as a contaminant of crop seed.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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C. iria is distinguished by its yellowish-red, fibrous roots; yellowish, usually open inflorescence; and by the lowest bract of the flower always being longer than the inflorescence (Holm et al., 1977). However, as a seedling or non-flowering plant, it closely resembles many immature, annual Cyperus spp. In a key to seedling Cyperaceae, Kostermans et al. (1987) use the coleoptile, seed, first leaf blade and first leaf sheath as diagnostic characters. It is sometimes possible to distinguish seedlings of C. iria from those of C. difformis by the mild aroma released when C. iria is crushed.

A very experienced eye is required to distinguish the seeds of C. iria from those of other Cyperus species.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

The principles of good weed management in rice, such as those advocated by Ampong-Nyarko and DeDatta (1992), are applicable to C. iria in rice and other crops. These include the need to prepare clean seedbeds, prevent seed production, establish a healthy and vigorous crop and avoid contamination of crop seed at harvest. C. iria is susceptible to many of the usual methods of weed control in rice and other crops. These include hand-pulling, manual and mechanical tillage and trampling in puddled fields. Flooding has a major suppressive effect during the early growth stages of C. iria (Civico and Moody, 1979) but established plants are difficult to control in this way and can tolerate 90 cm of floodwater for four days (Singh et al., 1983).

Biological Control

At present there are no biological control agents for C. iria but Phoma cyperi sp. nov., a pathogen of C. iria, may have some potential.

Chemical Control

A number of herbicides are approved for use in rice but their use is dictated by the conditions used to grow the crop, e.g. whether the crop is irrigated, rainfed lowland, upland and deepwater. C. iria is susceptible to the herbicides commonly used in rice: bensulfuron, bentazone, bifenox + 2,4-D, butachlor, butralin, 2,4-D, MCPA, molinate, oxadiazon, pendimethalin, piperophos + dimethametryn, pretilachlor + antidote (e.g. fenclorim), propanil, thiobencarb, thiobencarb + 2,4-D. Cinmethylin and fluorodifen were also active against C. iria (Ampong-Nyarko and DeDatta, 1991). Paraquat and glyphosate can both be used as non-selective, post-emergence herbicides against C. iria, for example in land preparation using zero-tillage.

Integrated Weed Management

Integrated weed management is recommended for cost-effective weed control; combinations of treatments such as: planting clean seed into a weed-free seedbed; sowing crop at optimum spacing; good water control; applying appropriate herbicides or cultivations; and harvesting crop grain which is not contaminated by weeds may be combined for an effective integrated control strategy.

References

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Ampong-Nyarko K; DeDatta SK, 1991. A Handbook for Weed Control in Rice. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Ananthakrishnan TN; Kandasamy C, 1977. On the trends of infestation of two species of Baliothrips Uzel on paddy, maize and their weed hosts. Current Science, 46(10):344-345

Anon, 1968. Weeds found in Cultivated land in Taiwan, Volumes 1 & 2. Taipei, Taiwan: College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University.

Baker JB; Shrefler JW, unda. Rice weed control studies. 75th annual progress report, Rice Research Station, Crowley, Louisiana, 1983, 193-201

Balakrishnan B; Nair MC, 1981. Weed hosts of Acrocylindrium oryzae Saw., a sheath rot pathogen of rice. International Rice Research Newsletter, 6(6):13

Bansal GL; Singh CM, 1986. Germination, growth and development of some grass weeds under mid-hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 17(3):53-55

Barnes DE; Chan LG, 1990. Common Weeds of Malaysia and their Control. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ancom Berhad Persiaran Selangor.

Barrion AT; Litsinger JA, 1987. The bionomics, karyology and chemical control of the node-feeding black bug, Scotinophara latiuscula Breddin (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in the Philippines. Journal of Plant Protection in the Tropics, 4(1):37-54

Bir SS; Chatha GS; Sidhu M, 1992. Intraspecific variation in Cyperaceae from Punjab Plain, India. Willdenowia, 22(1-2):133-142

Chozin MA; Nakagawa K, 1988. Autecological studies on Cyperus iria L. and C. microiria Steud., annual cyperaceous weeds. I. Seed dormancy, germination, and seedling emergence. Weed Research, Japan, 33(1):23-30

Chozin MA; Yasuda S, 1991. Possibility of natural hybridization between Cyperus iria L. and Cyperus microiria Steud. Weed Research (Tokyo), 36(3):282-289

Civico RSA; Moody K, 1979. The effect of the time and depth of submergence on growth and development of some weed species. Philippine Journal of Weed Science, 6:41-49

Clayton WD, 1972. Gramineae. In: Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN, 1972. Flora of West Tropical Africa. Vol 3. Part 2. London, UK: Crown Agents, 349-512.

Cruz CG; Dela-Cruz CG, 1986. Host plant range of the planthopper Nisia atrovenosa. International Rice Research Newsletter, 11(2):26-27.

Fernandez M; Ortega J, 1982. Weeds as hosts of rice nematodes. Ciencias de la Agricultura, No.12:114-116

George S; Hameed SMS; Tajuddin E, 1990. Effect of resource constraints on weed growth in wetland rice. International Rice Research Newsletter, 15(1):36

Gokulapalan C; Nair MC, 1983. Collateral hosts of Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn causing sheath blight of rice. International Rice Research Newsletter, 8(6):10

Groves RH, 1991. Weeds of tropical Australia. Tropical grassy weeds., 189-196; 9 ref.

Haines RW; Lye KA, 1983. The Sedges and Rushes of East Africa. Nairobi, Kenya: East African Natural History Society.

Hollis JP, 1972. Nematicide-weed interaction in rice fields. Plant Disease Reporter, 56(5):420-424.

Holm LG; Pancho JV; Herberger JP; Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp.

Holm LG; Plucknett DL; Pancho JV; Herberger JP, 1977. The World's Worst Weeds. Distribution and Biology. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University Press of Hawaii.

HSfliger E; Kühn U; HSmet-Ahti L; Cook CDK; Faden R; Speta F, 1982. Monocot Weeds 3. Basle, Switzerland: Documenta Ciba-Geigy.

Jena SN; Patro GK, 1990. Weed composition in dry seeded wetland rice. International Rice Research Newsletter, 15(3):34

Jiang RC; Xue G; Lou YL; Du JR, 1989. Field trials of oxyfluorfen, a herbicide used for control of weeds in rice field in Jiangsu Province. Jiangsu Agricultural Sciences, No. 5:22-24

Kandasamy OS; Palaniappan SP, 1990. Weeds in direct seeded ricefields of Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. International Rice Research Newsletter, 15(1):35

Kaul MK, 1986. Weed Flora of Kashmir Valley. Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers, 422 pp.

Kurmi K; Das GR, 1993. Effect of herbicides on weed control in transplanted rice. Integrated weed management for sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of an Indian Society of Weed Science International Symposium, Hisar, India, 18-20 November 1993 Hisar, Haryana, India; Indian Society of Weed Science, 3:27-29

Lin C-H; Hsue J-C; Tsay J-S, 1982. The anatomy of the noxious weeds on cultivated land of Taiwan. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Republic of China, B, 6(4):452-460

Linnaeus C, 1753. Species plantarum vol. I. Holmiae.

Liu LC; Lozano JJM, 1987. Bentazon mixtures to control weeds in rice. Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico, 71(2):217-223

Lopez A; Salazar E; Veloz A, 1974. Behaviour of various herbicides for weed control in rice sown broadcast with pre-germinated seed. Asociacion Latinoamericana de Malezas "ALAM" [y] Sociedad Colombiana de Control de Malezas y Fisiologia Vegetal "COMALFI". Resumenes de los Trabajos en el II Congreso ALAM y VI Seminario, COMALFI, Cali, 1974., 50-51

Lorenzi H, 1982. Weeds of Brazil, terrestrial and aquatic, parasitic, poisonous and medicinal. (Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais.) Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp.

Lye KA, 1981. Studies in African Cyperaceae 18. Two new subgenera of Cyperus. Nordic Journal of Botany, 1:57-61.

Malik RK; Bhan VM; Katyal SK; Balyan RS; Singh BV, Weed management problems in rice-wheat cropping system adoption of weed control technology in north western India. Abstracts of papers, annual conference of Indian Society of Weed Science, 1981., 33

Meneses-Carbonell R; Carbonell RM, 1985. Rice water weevil host plants in Cuba. International Rice Research Newsletter, 10(1):21-22.

Minh Si H, 1969. Weeds in South Vietnam. Saigon, Vietnam: Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Land Reform and Development of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Mohanty SS; Rath GC, 1987. Infection of leaf lamina by Custuta chinensis Lamk. Indian Journal of Plant Pathology, 5(1):109-110

Moody K, 1989. Weeds reported in Rice in South and Southeast Asia. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Moody K; Munroe CE; Lubigan RT; Paller EC Jr, 1984. Major Weeds of the Philippines. Los Baños, Philippines: Weed Science Society of the Philippines, University of the Philippines at Los Baños.

Mukhopadhyay SK, 1982. Noxious aquatic vegetation of West Bengal. Abstracts of papers, Annual Conference of Indian Society of Weed Science, December 27-30, 1982. Haryana, India: Indian Society of Weed Science.

Napper DM, 1966. Cyperaceae of East Africa - IV. Cyperus L. Journal of the East African Natural History Society, 26(1):1-24.

Neogi B; Rao RR, 1982. Weed flora of various hill agro-ecosystems in Meghalaya, north-eastern India. Australian Weeds, 2(1):9-15

Noda K; Teerawatsakul M; Prakongvongs C; Chaiwiratnukul L, 1985. Major Weeds in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Department of Agriculture.

Numata M; Yoshizawa N, 1975. Weed flora of Japan. Japan Association for the Advancement of Phyto-Regulators. Tokyo, Japan: Zenkoku Noson Kyoiku Kyokai.

Park JK; Kim DS, 1971. Distribution of weeds and their competition with rice in Korea. Proceedings of the Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, 3.

Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp.

Pillai KS; Nair MRGK, 1979. Biology and habits of the rice case worm Nymphula depunctalis Guen. in Kerala. Entomon, 4(1):13-16

Ranjit JD; Bhattarai AN, 1988. Crop Weeds and their Control in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Winrock International/USAID.

Riley DG; Coats GE; Anderson DH, 1986. Evaluation of imazaquin and AC 263,499 for wild garlic control in turf. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 39th annual meeting, 112

Sastry KSK; Boraiah G; Govindu HC; Khaleel TF, 1980. Weeds of Karnataka. Weeds of Karnataka. University of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore India, 360pp.

Sharma RS; Thakur CL, 1993. Integrated and economically viable weed management in soybean (Glycine max)-wheat (Triticum aestivum) crop sequence. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 63(9):556-560

Sidhu M; Gogia BK; Kumar A, unda. Changes in weed flora of paddy fields of Patiala District (Punjab) during eleven years. Abstracts of papers, annual conference of Indian Society of Weed Science, 1982., 1

Singh G; Gangwar B, 1986. Weed management in dry season crops of Andamans. Seeds & Farms, 12(5):41-43

Singh NI; Singh KU, 1988. Unrecorded weed hosts for rice blast (BI) pathogen Pyricularia oryzae Cav. in India. International Rice Research Newsletter, 13(5):35

Singh RD; Sarkar PA; Ghosh AK, 1983. Tolerance of rice weeds for natural floodwater submergence. International Rice Research Newsletter, 8(5):19-20

Singh RK; Singh RP, 1985. Effect of water management practices on relative composition of weed flora in rice. Abstracts of papers, Annual Conference of Indian Society of Weed Science.

Soerjani M; Kostermans AJGH; Tjitrosoepomo G, 1987. Weeds of Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: Balai Pustaka, 716 pp.

Terry PJ, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management, 27(1):44-52.

Upadhyay RK; Strobel GA; Hess WM, 1990. Phoma cyperi sp.nov., a new pathogen of Cyperus iria, its vegetative and reproductive structures and production of phytotoxins. Canadian Journal of Botany, 68(10):2059-2064

Wang Z; Xin M; Ma D, 1990. Farmland Weeds in China. Agricultural Publishing House, 506 pp.

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp.

Waterhouse DF, 1994. Biological Control of Weeds: Southeast Asian Prospects. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR Monograph No 26.

Weerakoon WL; Gunewardena SDIE, 1983. Rice field weed flora of Sri Lanka. Tropical Agriculturist, 139:1-14; 26 ref.

Wozniak H, 1976. Studies on the weed flora in important rice growing areas of the Republic of Cuba. Part I. The weed flora on the rice fields. Beitrage zur Tropischen Landwirtschaft und Veterinarmedizin, 14(4):349-359

Yip SM, 1976. A survey of the common weed species found in vegetable fields and weed control methods adopted by farmers in Hong Kong. Agriculture Hong Kong, 1(5):434-445

Distribution References

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Cyperus iria (rice flatsedge)

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