Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Water Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Organizations
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Ceratophyllum demersum Linnaeus, 1753
Preferred Common Name
- coontail
Other Scientific Names
- Ceratopyllum komarovii Kuzen.
- Ceratopyllum pentacanthum Haynald
- Ceratopyllum platyacanthum Cham.
International Common Names
- English: hornwort
- Spanish: cama de ranas (Argentina); celestina de agua (Argentina); cola de zorro (Argentina)
- French: cératophylle submergé; cornifle nageant; cornue d'eau
Local Common Names
- Brazil: candelabro-aquatico
- Cuba: celestina
- Germany: Hornblatt, Gemeines; Hornblatt, Rauhes
- Italy: coda di volpe
- Japan: kingyomo; matsumo
- Netherlands: Hoornblad
EPPO code
- CEYDE (Ceratophyllum demersum)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageC. demersum is a cosmopolitan submerged aquatic species that has probably already invaded most of its potential exotic range. It has the advantages of being a perennial surviving well overwinter in deeper water and by growing both by asexual reproduction of broken or complete stems and by sexual reproduction of very many seeds. It has a wide ecological tolerance and grows relatively fast. Disturbance of the water body results in increases in growth through changes in nutrient availability but also in faster dispersal around water bodies allowing greater competition with less vigorous species.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Nymphaeales
- Family: Ceratophyllaceae
- Genus: Ceratophyllum
- Species: Ceratophyllum demersum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe dicotyledonous, submerged plant Ceratophyllum demersum belongs to the Family Ceratophyllaceae. This family comprises three species: C. demersum, C. submersum and C. muricatum, with C. demersum is a stiff robust plant with leaves normally dichotomously forked twice compared to, for example, C. submersum which in Europe is rather soft and typically has leaves divided 3-4 times, or to members of the Haloragagceae in Australasia. The Ceratophyllaceae are regarded as monotypic, comprising the single extant genus Ceratophyllum. They show no close affinity to any extant angiosperm group. The family is viewed as a vestige of ancient angiosperms that diverged quite early from the line that gave rise to most other modern taxa. The occurrence of typically monocotyledonous features in Ceratophyllum and Nymphaeales may indicate a common gene pool somewhere in the remote ancestry of this order and other ancient angiosperms. To better reflect the isolated phylogenetic position of Ceratophyllaceae in classification schemes, a new order, Ceratophyllales, is proposed by Les (1988).
There are considered to be two sub species: C. ceratophyllum subsp. platyacanthum (Cham.) Nyman, and C. ceratophyllum subsp. demersum, and two varieties, var. inerme Gay ex Radcl.-Sm characterised by having the 2 long basal spines of the fruit missing or, as in var. apicatum (Cham.) Asch., reduced to tubercles. However, Missouri Botanical Garden (2008) note over ten varieties in addition to these two subspp.and two forms, C. demersum as well as the stated synonyms, there are also some 80 older names for the species and sub species (See Kew Check list of world families). A useful general introductory book on identifying water plant of the world is available (Cook, 1990).
Description
Top of pageC. demersum is a perennial, submerged aquatic angiosperm, occasionally branching but with a single branch produced per node. Leaves are mid-dark green, rigid sessile, in whorles of 6-8, dichotomously divided (1- or 2-3-forked) into linear segments with 4 or 5 prominent teeth marginally. Roots are lacking, but leafy branches are sometimes modified as rhizoids; stems break easily and the pieces continue growth separately. Flowers are unisexual, both staminate and pistillate on the same plant, very small, solitary in axil of one leaf of a given whorl, each subtended by an 8-12-part involucre; they have no perianth. The staminate flowers have 4-10 stamens, with very short filaments, anthers with a connective projecting distally and ending in 2 bristles. Pistillate flowers have 1 pistil and a superior, 1-locular, ovary. The fruit is 1-seeded, ovoid-oblong 4-6 mm long achene, with spineless, lateral margins and 1 or 2 basal spines (Godfrey and Wooten, 1981).
Distribution
Top of pageC. demersum is a rootless aquatic macrophyte with a cosmopolitan distribution; it has a wide ecological tolerance. When water is disturbed, it is quite common for native species to increase their growth and become a threat to human use of the water body. Frequently, disturbance of the bed of the water body or soils in the catchment results from an increase in the trophic level of the water or the substrate. C. demersum has become locally troublesome on several occasions (Cook, 1990). It is one of the 26 aquatic vascular plant species that Cook (1985) characterized as 'very widespread', and is unlikely to be native throughout its whole range of occurrence.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 15 Dec 2020Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Benin | Present | ||||||
Chad | Present | Collected by F.N. Hepper | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Egypt | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Ghana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Kenya | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Gaudet (1973) | |||||
Mali | Present | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
Senegal | Present | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | ||||||
Sudan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | Collected by F.L. Van der Plank, E. Milne-Redhead, & P. Taylor | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | ||||||
Bangladesh | Present | ||||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Anhui | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Hong-jun and Xue-ming (1986) | |||||
-Hubei | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Hong-jun and Xue-ming (1986) | |||||
-Hunan | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Hong-jun and Xue-ming (1986) | |||||
-Inner Mongolia | Present | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Hong-jun and Xue-ming (1986) | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Hong-jun and Xue-ming (1986) | |||||
India | Present | Collected by C.B. Clarke | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Bihar | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Haryana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Mizoram | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Odisha | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Punjab | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Sidhu et al. (1982) | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Irian Jaya | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Java | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Sulawesi | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Iraq | Present | ||||||
Israel | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Japan | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Honshu | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Laos | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Myanmar | Present | ||||||
North Korea | Present | ||||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
Singapore | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Collected by Walker | |||||
Taiwan | Present | ||||||
Thailand | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Turkey | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Belgium | Present | ||||||
Croatia | Present | ||||||
Czechoslovakia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | ||||||
Denmark | Present | ||||||
Finland | Present, Widespread | ||||||
France | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Germany | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Greece | Present | ||||||
Hungary | Present, Widespread | Original citation: Karpati et al. (1985) | |||||
Italy | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Lithuania | Present | ||||||
Netherlands | Present, Widespread | ||||||
North Macedonia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Poland | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Portugal | Present | ||||||
Russia | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Present | Original citation: Othacek~ahel'ová and Othacek~ahel' (2006) | |||||
Spain | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Balearic Islands | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Sweden | Present | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-England | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Bermuda | Present | ||||||
Canada | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Alberta | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-British Columbia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Manitoba | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New Brunswick | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Newfoundland and Labrador | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Northwest Territories | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Nova Scotia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Ontario | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Prince Edward Island | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Quebec | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Saskatchewan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Yukon | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Cuba | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mexico | Present | Collected by H. Schopfel | |||||
Panama | Present | ||||||
Puerto Rico | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Alabama | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Alaska | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Arizona | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Arkansas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-California | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Colorado | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Connecticut | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Delaware | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Florida | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Georgia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Idaho | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Illinois | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Indiana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Iowa | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Kansas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Kentucky | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Maine | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Maryland | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Massachusetts | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Michigan | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Minnesota | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Missouri | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Montana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Nebraska | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Nevada | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New Hampshire | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New Jersey | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New Mexico | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New York | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-North Dakota | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Ohio | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Oklahoma | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Oregon | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Pennsylvania | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Rhode Island | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-South Dakota | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Tennessee | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Texas | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Utah | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Vermont | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Virginia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Washington | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-West Virginia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Wisconsin | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-Wyoming | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present | ||||||
Fiji | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present, Widespread | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | ||||||
-Goias | Present | ||||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Para | Present | ||||||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present |
Habitat
Top of pageIn general, C. demersum occurs in quiet or slow flowing, hard calcareous, nutrient-rich or eutrophic waters of streams, ditches ,canals, ponds and lakes as a near free-floating aquatic plant where it may form large masses. It is especially favoured by nitrate-rich conditions where it grows in greater abundance (Goulder and Boatman, 1971; Toetz, 1971; Best, 1980; Kulshreshta, 1982). It is a cosmopolitan species. Although the plant is considered rootless, it bears some appendages which assist in delaying movement around the shallower margins of lakes under the influence of, for example, wind fetch.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Freshwater | ||||
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
Freshwater | Lakes | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
Freshwater | Ponds | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageC. demersum is a perennial, submerged aquatic angiosperm, branching but with a single branch produced per node. Roots are lacking, but leafy branches are sometimes modified as rhizoids; stems break easily and the pieces continue growth separately (Godfrey and Wooten, 1981).
In temperate regions, C. demersum plants perennate by dormant apices on the lake bottom, where these organs are covered by a layer of detritus. Dormancy is initiated in late summer and autumn when elongation growth of the lateral shoots ceases, and tightly clustered, dark-green leaves, which contain high levels of starch, are formed. The dormant apices remain attached throughout winter or become liberated, depending on the disintegration rate of the parent axis. In temperate regions, liberation of the hibernacula [winter buds] is an important means of dispersal, because water temperatures are too low for flowering and seed development. In late spring the axis elongates, the leaves expand and a new plant starts to grow.
During growth the plants tend to concentrate most of their biomass in the upper half of their height and often reach the water surface. At the end of the growth season, the plants senesce rapidly and, in doing so, lose substantial amounts of nutrients (Pomogyi et al., 1984). Decomposition of the plant material proceeds rapidly: most of the dead plant biomass decomposes and disintegrates before the next growth season starts, leaving only and a small fraction of organic matterial in the water body (Best et al., 1990). Phenological cycle, growth and primary production have been described (Sculthorpe, 1971; Best and Dassen, 1987 [and citations therein]). Photosynthesis has been investigated intensively (Carr, 1969; Van et al., 1976; Best and Meulemans, 1979; Fair and Meeke, 1983; Sand-Jensen and Madsen, 1991). A simulation model to calculate biomass formation has been developed by Best and Jacobs (1990).
Flowering does occur in warmer areas: for example, seeds were abundant in Papua New Guinea (Osborne and Polunin, 1986). Pollen transport is hydrophilous [via water]: recent studies indicate that, at the population level, hydrophilous taxa have a lower percentage of polymorphic loci, fewer alleles per locus, and lower levels of heterozygosity than non-hydrophilous plants. These patterns may be explained by limited sexuality, extensive vegetative spread and the greater isolation of freshwater populations (lakes may be considered as 'islands') relative to most terrestrial plant species and to coastal species such as Zostera marina (Les, 1991; Barrett et al., 1993; Laushman, 1993).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
60 | 55 |
Water Tolerances
Top of pageParameter | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | Typical Value | Status | Life Stage | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conductivity (µmhos/cm) | 200 | 1000 | Optimum | 2000 tolerated | ||
Depth (m b.s.l.) | 1 | Optimum | 3+ tolerated | |||
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate) | 20 | 300 | Optimum | <20 to >400 tolerated | ||
Salinity (part per thousand) | 0 | Optimum | 0.05 seawater tolerated | |||
Velocity (cm/h) | 0 | 400 | Optimum | >500 tolerated | ||
Water pH (pH) | 7 | 8.5 | Optimum | 8.5-10 tolerated | ||
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 10 | 25 | Optimum | 4-26 tolerated, but probably temperature adaptive |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ctenopharyngodon idella | Predator | |||||
Hirschmanniella caudacrena | Parasite | |||||
Mycoleptodiscus terrestris | Pathogen |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageTriploid grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were successfully used to control water weeds including C. demersum, in waterlily production ponds in Brookshire, and in Lake Conroe, both in Texas, USA (Martyn et al., 1986; Santha et al., 1994), in Iowa, USA (Mitzner, 1976), and in Thailand (Pholprasith et al., 1978). Grass carp also proved useful in tropical areas, such as Egypt (Khattab and El-Gharably, 1986).
The larvae of Parapoynx diminutalis, an Asian pyralid moth adventive on Hydrilla verticillata, were able to remove considerable C. demersum biomass (Buckingham and Bennett, 1989). The nematode Hirschmanniella caudacrena may be pathogenic to C. demersum (Gerber et al., 1986; Gerber and Smart, 1987).
Several fungi have been tested to control aquatic weeds. Mycoleptodiscus terrestris, a microbial herbicide candidate for Myriophyllum spicatum, also proved pathogenic to C. demersum when applied as alginate beads (Verma and Charudattan, 1993).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fisheries | Yes | |||
Flooding and other natural disasters | Yes | |||
Garden waste disposal | Yes | |||
Hitchhiker | Yes | Yes | ||
Internet sales | Yes | |||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | ||
Pet trade | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aquaculture stock | Fragments with stocking/on nets | Yes | Yes | |
Floating vegetation and debris | Erratic, flood events | Yes | ||
Land vehicles | On wheels, tracks or in attached mud etc. of excavation vehicles | Yes | ||
Pets and aquarium species | Casual introductions and discarded material | Yes | ||
Water | Yes |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageWhen water is disturbed, it is quite common for native species to increase their growth and become a threat to human use of the water body. Frequently, disturbance results from an increase in the trophic level of the water or the substrate. C. demersum has become locally troublesome on several occasions (Cook, 1990). It is one of the 26 aquatic vascular plant species that Cook (1985) characterized as 'very widespread'. It affects fish production in Thailand (Chomchalow and Pongpangan, 1973).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Has high genetic variability
- Altered trophic level
- Conflict
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of natural benthic communities
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Transportation disruption
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition - strangling
- Filtration
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Wildlife habitat
General
- Ornamental
- Pet/aquarium trade
Materials
- Manure
- Mulches
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
In Europe, a wide range of attitudes to aquatic weed management currently exists and EU law is continually under review. Thus, certain countries do not permit any use of aquatic herbicides (e.g. Denmark), or severely restrict herbicide use in freshwater systems (e.g. The Netherlands), even if they suffer serious problems of aquatic weed growth. These countries rely instead on mechanical control supplemented by the use of biological agents, almost exclusively grass carp. Such countries usually have influential nature conservation lobbies, generally tend to restrict the use of herbicides in non-agricultural systems in order to minimize environmental contamination, and are prepared to pay for plant management regimes which exclude the use of herbicides.
In contrast, the countries of southern and south-eastern Europe such as Italy, Portugal, Hungary and the Balkan area currently take a more pragmatic approach to the control of aquatic weeds in areas of vital economic importance, such as irrigated cropland, and use a full range of chemical, mechanical or manual and biological control measures. The attitude and approach of most European and Australasian countries are intermediate between the extremes described above. Most Asian and African countries follow the same approach as south-eastern Europe. In the USA and Canada at present, the use of herbicides to control aquatic weeds predominates; however, other, more 'environmentally friendly' alternatives are intensively sought, such as shading or reducing the light penetration of water, restricting nutrients or environmental manipulation of water flow, channel shape, etc.
Chemical control
C. demersum could be controlled using the following herbicides: dichlobenil, diquat, diquat + complexed copper, endothal dipotassium salt, endothal + complexed copper, endothal dimethylalkylamine salts (rated as 'excellent'); fluridone, simazine (rated as 'good'); 2,4-D (rated as 'fair') (Westerdahl and Getsinger, 1988). Examples of applications can be found in the literature (Mixon, 1974; Baker et al., 1975; Serns, 1977; Best and Van de Wittenboer, 1978; Patnaik and Das, 1981; Arsenovic et al., 1982; Khattab and El-Gharably, 1986; Wells et al., 1986; Wells and Clayton, 1993).
Mechanical control
Mechanical harvesting has proved sufficient to control C. demersum stands in some temperate areas. The timing of cutting was not critical in The Netherlands (Jacobs and Best, 1990), but harvesting in July gave the best control in Wisconsin, USA (Engel, 1990).
Biological control
Triploid grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were successfully used to control water weeds, including C. demersum, in waterlily production ponds in Brookshire, and in Lake Conroe, both in Texas, USA (Martyn et al., 1986; Santha et al., 1994), in Iowa, USA (Mitzner, 1976), and in Thailand (Pholprasith et al., 1978). Grass carp also proved useful in tropical areas, such as Egypt (Khattab and El-Gharably, 1986).
However, palatability of this plant is an issue for grass carp as C. demersum is not high on prefered list of species eaten .In one case when other aquatic plants were available it was not grazed (Pine and Anderson, 1991), but it was grazed on other occasions (Cassani, 1981; Fowler, 1984), although not preferred (Chapman and Coffey, 1971; Edwards, 1975; Colle et al., 1978; Kilambi and Zdinak, 1980; Cassani and Caton, 1983). The rather low efficiency with which the plant material was converted into fish biomass may explain why the fish did not prefer this plant (Venkatesh and Shetty, 1978a, b, c; Kilambi and Zdinak, 1981; Hajra, 1987).
The larvae of Parapoynx diminutalis, an Asian pyralid moth adventive on Hydrilla verticillata, were able to remove considerable C. demersum biomass (Buckingham and Bennett, 1989). The nematode Hirschmanniella caudacrena may be pathogenic to C. demersum (Gerber et al., 1986; Gerber and Smart, 1987).
Several fungi have been tested to control aquatic weeds. Mycoleptodiscus terrestris, a microbial herbicide candidate for Myriophyllum spicatum, proved pathogenic to C. demersum when applied as alginate beads (Verma and Charudattan, 1993).
Environmental Manipulation
More 'environmentally friendly' alternatives should be more intensively sought. Modifying the channel environment, however small a change and wherever possible, all helps to reduce aquatic plant growth. Demonstrated effects include reducing direct sunlight by correctly-orientated marginal shade from vegetation, or even artificial materials near the water surface or also reducing in the light penetration of water (Dawson, 1986). Environmental changes may include manipulation of water flow periodic or regular brief increases in water flow to washout out less stable vegetation or substrates, restructuring or reshaping,channel shape, etc. (Dawson and Brabben, 1991; Bolton and Dawson, 1992).
References
Top of pageBailey WM; Boyd RL, 1972. Some observations on the white amur in Arkansas. Hyacinth Control Journal, 10:20-22.
Best EPH, 1980. Effects of nitrogen on the growth and nitrogenous compounds of Ceratophyllum demersum. Aquatic Botany, 8(2):197-206.
Best EPH, 1982. The aquatic macrophytes of Lake Vechten. Species composition, spatial distribution and production. Hydrobiologia, 95:65-77.
Best EPH; Dassen JHA, 1987. Biomass, stand area, primary production characteristics and oxygen regime of the Ceratophyllum demersum L. population in Lake Vechten, The Netherlands. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie, Supplementband 76, Monographische Beitrage:347-367.
Best EPH; Dassen JHA; Boon JJ; Wiegers G, 1990. Studies on decomposition of Ceratophyllum demersum litter under laboratory and field conditions: losses of dry mass and nutrients, qualitative changes in organic compounds and consequences for ambient water and sediments. Hydrobiologia, 194:91-114.
Carr JL, 1969. The primary productivity and physiology of Ceratophyllum demersum. II. Micro primary productivity, pH and the P/R ratio. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 20:127-142.
Chapman VJ; Brown JMA; Hill CF; Carr JL, 1974. Biology of excessive weed growth in the hydro-electric lakes of the Waikato River, New Zealand. Hydrobiologia, 44:349-363.
Chapman VJ; Coffey BJ, 1971. Experiments with grass carp in controlling exotic macrophytes in New Zealand. Hydrobiologia, 12:313-323.
Cook CDK, 1990. Origin, autecology, and spread of some of the worlds' most troublesome aquatic weeds. In: Pieterse AH, Murphy KJ, eds. Aquatic Weeds: The Ecology and Management of Nuisance Aquatic Vegetation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 31-39.
Dorna JM, 1974. Aquatic weeds - their control. Malezas y su Control, 3(1):83-98.
Dutta TR; Prasad J; Singh RP, 1972. Evaluation of herbicides for submerged weeds in Chambal and Bhakra-Nangal canal systems. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 42:70-75.
Godfrey RK; Wooten JW, 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of the south-eastern United States: Dicotyledons. Athens, Georgia: Univ. Georgia Press.
Goulder R; Boatman DJ, 1971. Evidence that the nitrogen supply influences the distribution of a freshwater macrophyte, Ceratophyllum demersum. Journal of Ecology, 59:783-791.
Heffron CL; Reid JT; Haschek WM; Furr AK; Parkinson TF; Bache CA; Gutenmann WH, St. John LE Jr, Lisk DJ, 1977. Chemical composition and acceptability of aquatic plants in diets of sheep and pregnant goats. Journal of Animal Science, 45:1166-1172.
Heukels H; Van Oostroom SJ, 1973. Flora van Nederland. Zeventiende druk. Bewerktdoor Dr.S.J.van Oostroom. Wolters-Noordhoff NV, Groningen.
Hiltibran RC, 1972. Phenoxy herbicides: Illinois investigations. Abstracts of the 1972 Meeting of the Weed Science Society of America, 13.
Ikusima I, 1970. Ecological studies on the productivity of aquatic plant communities. IV. Light condition and community photosynthetic production. Botanical Magazine of Tokyo, 83:330-341.
Imam M; Chrtek J; Kosinova J, 1972. Novitates Florae Aegyptiacae. 2. Webbia, 27:461-466.
Keay RWJ, 1954. Flora of West Tropical Africa, Volume 1, Part 1, 2nd edition (revised). London, UK: Crown Agents.
Les DH, 1988. The origin and affinities of the Ceratophyllaceae. Taxon, 37(2):326-345
Linnaeus C, 1753. Species plantarum. Facsimile Edition, 1959, Vol. II. London, UK: Bernard Quaritch.
Midlen A; Reading TA, 1998. Environmental Management for Aquaculture.
Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Patnaik S, 1981. Evaluation of some aquatic weeds collected from different sites for their water, nitrogen and protein content. Abstracts of papers, annual conference of Indian Society of Weed Science, 40.
Patnaik S; Das KM, 1981. Efficacy of paraquat for control of submerged weeds. Proceedings of the eighth Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, Bangalore, India, November 22 to 29, 1981. Volume II:169-173.
Pierce PC; Opoku A, 1971. Summary of aquatic weed survey and control data of Volta Lake during 1969. Hyacinth Control Journal, 9:49-54.
Santha CR; Martyn RD; Neill WH; Strawn K, 1974. Control of submersed weeds by grass carp in water lily production ponds. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 32:29-33.
Sculthorpe CD, 1971. The Biology of Aquatic Vascular Plants. London, UK: Edward Arnold Publishers.
Toetz DW, 1971. Diurnal uptake of NO3 and NH4 by a Ceratophyllum periphyton community. Limnology and Oceanography, 16:819-822.
Vaas KP, 1956. On the ecology and fisheries of Rawa Aopa, Southeast Sulawesi. Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Report, No 8.
Voge M, 1986. Tauchuntersuchungen an Gesellschaften von Ceratophyllum demersum. Limnologica, 17:67-77.
Westerdahl HE; Getsinger KD, 1988. Aquatic plant identification and herbicide use guide. Volume II: Aquatic plants and susceptibility to herbicides. Aquatic Plant Control Research Program. Technical Report, A-88-89.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Ikusima I, 1970. Ecological studies on the productivity of aquatic plant communities. IV. Light condition and community photosynthetic production. In: Botanical Magazine of Tokyo, 83 330-341.
Imam M, Chrtek J, Kosinova J, 1972. Novitates Florae Aegyptiacae. 2. Webbia. 27 (2), 461-466.
Santha CR, Martyn RD, Neill WH, Strawn K, 1974. Control of submersed weeds by grass carp in water lily production ponds. In: Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 32 29-33.
Vaas KP, 1956. On the ecology and fisheries of Rawa Aopa, Southeast Sulawesi. In: Research Institute for Inland Fisheries,
Voge M, 1986. (Tauchuntersuchungen an Gesellschaften von Ceratophyllum demersum). In: Limnologica, 17 67-77.
Westerdahl HE, Getsinger KD, 1988. Aquatic plant identification and herbicide use guide. Volume II: Aquatic plants and susceptibility to herbicides. In: Aquatic Plant Control Research Program. Technical Report, A-88-89, Aquatic Plant Control Research Program.
Organizations
Top of pageNetherlands: European Weed Research Society - EWRS, Postbus 29, NL-6865 ZG Doorwerth, http://www.ewrs.org
UK: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology - CEH, CEH Wallingford, Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Walingford, Oxfordshire, http://www.ceh.ac.uk/
UK: Environment Agency, National Customer Contact Centre PO Box 544, Rotherham S60 1BY, http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/
Contributors
Top of page14/01/2008 Updated by:
Hugh Dawson, CEH Wallingford, Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK
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