Clematis vitalba (old man's beard)

Pictures

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Picture

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Caption

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Seedheads

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Seedheads. November 2013.

©Siaron James/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Seedheads

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Seedheads. Brno, Czech Republic. February 2010.

©Michal Klajban/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY 3.0

Flowers

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Flowers. Speyer, Germany. June 2014.

Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via Wikimedia Commons - CC0

Flowers

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Flowers. Banks of river Isar, Germany. July 2014.

©Burkhard Mücke/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Flower

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Flower. Saarbrücken, Germany. June 2015.

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Flowers

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Flowers. Brebach, Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany. August 2017.

©Andreas Rockstein/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Seeding habit

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Seeding habit. France. December 2018.

©Audrey Muratet/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Seeds

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Seeds. January 2020.

©Josef Laimer/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Seedheads

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Seedheads. Torà, Segarra, Catalonia, Spain. Seeding habit. September 2011.

©Isidre blanc/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Flowering habit

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Flowering habit. Plailly, Oise, France. June 2008.

©Olivier Pichard/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0

Habit

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Habit. Bielinek, Poland. October 2018.

©Krzysztof Ziarnek (Kenraiz)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Habit

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Habit. Szczecin, Poland. May 2013.

©Krzysztof Ziarnek (Kenraiz)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0

Vines

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Vines. Hockenheimer Rheinbogen, Germany. February 2015.

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Seeds

Clematis vitalba (old man's beard); Seeds - note scale bar. Toulouse , France. March 2014.

©Roger Culos, Muséum de Toulouse/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Clematis vitalba L.

Preferred Common Name

old man's beard

International Common Names

English: evergreen clematis; traveller's joy; virgin's bower
French: clématite des haie; clématite vigne blanche; herbe au gueux
Portuguese: vide branca

Local Common Names

Belgium: bosdruif
Denmark: almindelig skovranke; skovranke
Finland: saksankärhö
Germany: Echte Waldrebe; Gemeine Waldrebe; Gewöhnliche Waldrebe; Waldrebe; Weisse Waldrebe
Italy: clematide; clematide vitalba; vezzadro
Netherlands: bosrank
Norway: tysk klematis
Poland: powójnik pnacy
Sweden: skogsklematis

EPPO code

CLVVT (Clematis vitalba)

Summary of Invasiveness

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C. vitalba produces many seeds that are wind dispersed, and it is a strong colonizer of disturbed ground. It is a fast-growing vine with the ability to climb up and bring down tall trees and reduce standing forests to impenetrable low-growing infestations of the vine. It has the ability to expand its range and cover in Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand, and to be further introduced as an ornamental species. It is a very serious environmental weed in New Zealand undergoing eradication.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Ranunculales
Family: Ranunculaceae
Genus: Clematis
Species: Clematis vitalba

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The name 'vitalba' is derived from the Latin words for 'white vine', referring to the mass of white flowers that cover vines in summer. The common name, 'traveller's joy', also refers to this massive floral display, whereas the common names 'old man's beard' and 'virgin's bower' refer to the creamy mass of feathery achenes that hang on the bare canes through winter. Other common names are used regionally in England (West, 1991). Common names in other languages evoke the forest and hedgerow habitat that this vine inhabits. The name 'herbe au gueux' ('beggars plant') is said to originate from the use of the acrid juice of the plant to produce ulcerous wounds as a means of exciting pity (West, 1991). There are no taxonomic synonyms for this species. Several varieties have been recorded, but these are probably phenotypic variations in response to habitat.

Description

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C. vitalba is a deciduous, woody climber that can live for 40 years (West, 1991) or more. Woody stems can grow to over 10 m in length and can reach 15-20 cm in diameter. New stems are deeply ridged, dark purple and green, with silky white hairs near the apex, and have been recorded to grow as much as 3 m per year (West, 1991). Stems grow erect between holds, rather than entwining a vertical stem. A shoot can support itself for some distance before twining 3-4 times around a new hold of approximately 1 cm in diameter (Kennedy, 1984; West, 1991). Vines can climb 25 m-tall forest trees, but have difficulty colonizing tall, emergent species with long distances between branches (Ogle et al., 2000). Mature stems have grey, stringy bark, with thickened nodes approximately 15 cm apart. Where stems grow along the ground, adventitious roots form at the nodes.

Leaves are opposite, and almost all comprise five 3-10 cm leaflets with long petioles. Leaflets are variable in size and shape, ovate, acute to acuminate, rounded or sub-cordate at the base, and coarsely toothed or entire (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Leaves have light- and shade-forms (Kennedy, 1984). The flowers are solitary, in terminal or axillary cymes. Flowers are small (c. 2 cm), white to greenish-white, usually hermaphrodite, and without petals (Clapham et al., 1987). The achenes are compressed, 2.0-2.5 mm long. Each retains a feathery style that is 2-3 cm long. Achenes are produced in large heads.

Plant Type

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Broadleaved
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Vine / climber
Woody

Distribution

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C. vitalba is native to Europe, from southern England and the Netherlands to North Africa, and from Spain to the Middle East and the Caucasus. It is naturalized in European countries bordering its contiguous native range, including Ireland, Poland, Norway and Sweden (Tutin et al., 1964) and it also grows north of its native European range, for example in northern England and Scotland. It has been introduced to, and has naturalized in, North America, Australia and New Zealand. The best means for estimating distribution in Europe appears to be mean temperature in July (Fitter, 1978).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present, Localized	Native			Maire (1964) USDA-ARS (2003)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			Rechinger (1992) USDA-ARS (2003)
Armenia	Present	Native			Mirumyan (1991) USDA-ARS (2003)
Azerbaijan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Bhutan	Present	Introduced	2015		Seebens et al. (2017)
Georgia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Iran	Present	Native			Rechinger (1992) USDA-ARS (2003)
Lebanon	Present	Native			Rechinger (1992) USDA-ARS (2003)
Syria	Present	Native			Maire (1964) Rechinger (1992) USDA-ARS (2003)
Turkey	Present, Widespread	Native			Rechinger (1992) Sokmen et al. (2005) Demİr (2018) CABI (Undated)
Europe
Albania	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Austria	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Belgium	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Bulgaria	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Petkova (1984) Pencheva and Yovkova (2016)
Cyprus	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
Czechia	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Polák (1996)
Czechoslovakia	Present				CABI (Undated b)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present, Widespread	Native			Mihajlović et al. (1998)
Estonia	Present	Introduced	1803		Seebens et al. (2017)
France	Present, Widespread	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Trémolières et al. (1999) CABI (Undated)
-Corsica	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Germany	Present, Widespread	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Hemp (1999)
Greece	Present				Chatzivassiliou et al. (2001)
Hungary	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Ireland	Present	Introduced	1866		Seebens et al. (2017) Tutin et al. (1964)
Italy	Present, Widespread	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Arzone (1979) Pieroni (1999)
Netherlands	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Norway	Present	Introduced	1918		Seebens et al. (2017) Tutin et al. (1964)
Poland	Present	Introduced	1613		Seebens et al. (2017) Tutin et al. (1964) Czekalski (1987)
Portugal	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Romania	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964)
Russia	Present				CABI (Undated b)
-Southern Russia	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Fisun (1966)
Serbia	Present, Widespread	Native			Mihajlović et al. (1998) Marić et al. (2018)
Slovakia	Present	Native			Polák (1996)
Spain	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Seijo et al. (1997)
Sweden	Present	Introduced	1952		Seebens et al. (2017) Tutin et al. (1964)
Switzerland	Present	Native			Tutin et al. (1964) Groppe (1991)
Ukraine	Present, Few occurrences	Native			USDA-ARS (2003)
-Crimea	Present				CABI (Undated b)
United Kingdom	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Tutin et al. (1964) Clay and Dixon (2000)
North America
Canada	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-British Columbia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Anon. (2003)
-Ontario	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Anon. (2003)
United States	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)	First reported: 1830s
-Maine	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Oregon	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
-Washington	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2002)
Oceania
Australia	Present				CABI (Undated a) Seebens et al. (2017)	Present based on regional distribution.
-New South Wales	Present, Localized	Introduced			Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (2003)
-Tasmania	Present, Localized	Introduced			Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (2003)
-Victoria	Present, Localized	Introduced			Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney (2003)
New Zealand	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Atkinson (1984) Timmins (1984) West (1991) Ogle et al. (2000) Hill et al. (2001)	First reported: 1920s

History of Introduction and Spread

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C. vitalba has been introduced widely throughout the world as a garden ornamental, and has naturalized in Europe, North America, and Australasia. Gardeners in Philadephia and Boston, USA imported several Clematis species including C. vitalba between 1830 and 1840 (ACS, 2003). It was first recorded in New Zealand in the 1920s and had become naturalized by 1935 (West, 1991), but it was not until the 1960s that this plant was recognized as a threat.

Risk of Introduction

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C. vitalba seeds could be imported between continents as contaminants on trade items. However, this plant is not commonly associated with agricultural or industrial goods. Such events are therefore likely to be rare, and the risk low. However, C. vitalba often grows on roadsides, and the risk of seeds being transported on road vehicles from known infestations to new sites within continents is high. In the past, ornamental Clematis species were often grafted onto C. vitalba rootstocks. It is likely that some incursions of C. vitalba have resulted from reversion of these rootstocks. The highest risk of introduction remains via intentional introduction of the plant as an ornamental, and plants and seed continue to be sold by nurseries, mail order catalogues and websites.

Habitat

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C. vitalba is a versatile plant capable of growing in a variety of habitats, on a variety of substrates from trees and shrubs in forest margins to hedgerows, fencelines, dunes, riverbanks, and grassland. It is commonly associated with degraded and disturbed areas (Beekman, 1980), and so can be invasive within its native range. In both its native and exotic range, C. vitalba typically occupies forest margins and gaps and can invade open spaces. The distribution of C. vitalba in England is mainly on chalk and limestone, but elsewhere in Europe it occurs on a wide range of moderately fertile, well-drained soils. In New Zealand it is often associated with riverbeds, and fertile alluvial soils (Atkinson, 1984; West, 1991). It does not appear to be unusually sensitive to soil acidity or nutrient deficiency although heavy soils may restrict growth and spread (Atkinson, 1984). Its native range is in the latitudinal range 36-52°N, and it does not thrive north of 36°S. It is a lowland species in New Zealand, suggesting that it is limited by cooler temperatures at high elevation (Atkinson, 1984). In North America it occurs near the coast or on the Great Lakes at latitudes similar to those in Europe (Anon., 2003). These distributions suggest that C. vitalba is a warm temperate species although infestations can occur in microhabitats within regions that otherwise appear inhospitable (Atkinson, 1984). C. vitalba also invades riparian vegetation, waste land, long grass, and even urban areas (Atkinson, 1984; Buxton, 1985; West, 1991). C. vitalba seedlings are readily grazed, and as such C. vitalba is often confined to ungrazed areas (West, 1992).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details

Hosts/Species Affected

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C. vitalba is a minor weed of vineyards, and damages small trees and hedgerows in its native and introduced ranges in Europe (Britt, 1994; Clay and Dixon, 2000) as well as being a weed of pine (Pinus spp.) plantations (Mitchell, 1975).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Corylus avellana (hazel)	Betulaceae	Unknown	Sokmen et al. (2005)
Pinus (pines)	Pinaceae	Other
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Main

Growth Stages

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Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

Several studies confirm that the species is diploid, with 2n=16 chromosomes (Pastor et al., 1984; Ozyurt et al., 1997). C. vitalba has been artificially hybridized with other species to produce vigorous garden varieties such as C. 'jouiniana' (C. vitalba x C. davidiana or C. vitalba x C. heracleifolia) and C. 'Paul Farges' ('summer snow') (C. vitalba x C. potanini).

Physiology and Phenology

Bare stems produce leaves in mid-spring, and stem growth is rapid until flowering begins in mid-summer. Inflorescences continue to form as the stem elongates over summer. Achenes form from late summer, are retained on the plant, and fall in late winter or early spring. In New Zealand, there is phenological variation between sites that appears to be related more to microclimatic conditions than latitude or elevation (West, 1992). Seeds require winter-chilling to maximise germination. Hydrated seeds do not survive long, and the dense feathery seed loads hanging in plants over winter can be regarded as a dry, aerial seed bank from which seeds can fall at any time of year. Optimal germination of C. vitalba requires after-ripening of the seeds at temperatures lower than 15°C, and preferably alternating temperatures (Lhotska, 1974; West, 1992). Optimum temperatures and germination success of C. vitalba seeds varied with the duration of winter after-ripening, and this synchronised germination to the optimum period in spring. Similarly, Czekalski (1987) found that germination of seeds collected from plants in the autumn was poor (0-21%) compared to germination of seeds collected from the same plants in the following spring.

Seedlings form basal rosettes of single or trifoliate leaves, and after several months produce one or more elongating shoots bearing quinquefoliate leaves. Mature leaders grow 2.0-2.5 m per annum on average (West, 1992). C. vitalba can attain densities of over 7000 stems/ha and a fresh weight increment of 6.3 kg/m²/year. Stems at one New Zealand site grew an average 2.3 m in 1 year, producing 20 new nodes, with secondary stems developing from some of these nodes (West, 1992). Stem diameter and stem rings may not be good indicators of age (West, 1991).

Reproductive Biology

Seedlings do not flower before the third year (Kennedy, 1984). Flowers are slightly protandrous. Insects visit C. vitalba flowers, but flowers do not appear to be self-incompatible (West, 1992), and pollination can be successful without the attention of insects. West (1992) recorded an average production of 780 viable seeds/m² per year at one New Zealand site, and found 160-900 seeds/m² in the soil. It was estimated that seed might last as long as 5 years in the soil, but no longer than 10 years.

Environmental Requirements

C. vitalba grows on well-drained, moderately fertile soils (pH 5.5-8.0) and it is unlikely that poorly drained soils or arid areas will support this species. It responds well to the application of lime but is not restricted to calcareous sites. Plants respond to the addition of calcium and phosphorus (Hume et al., 1995) and to nitrogen (Bungard et al., 1998). The growth and spread of C. vitalba may be restricted by extremely acid soil conditions and by very low concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, sulphur and possibly manganese in the soil. However, it does not appear to be unusually sensitive to soil acidity or nutrient deficiencies (Groppe 1991; Hume et al., 1995). It is somewhat tolerant of saline soils.

Seedlings planted within undisturbed forest in New Zealand do not persist, and low irradiance appears to be the primary factor limiting establishment. Under controlled conditions, seedlings achieve maximum growth in full sunlight (100% Ir), substantial growth as low as 10% Ir, and little growth at 3% Ir. Seedlings raised at 1% Ir do not survive (Baars and Kelly, 1996; Bungard et al., 1998). Bungard et al. (1998) studied one forest remnant and suggested that germination and growth in response to light and nitrogen could account for the observed pattern of establishment and success of C. vitalba in New Zealand.

It is generally found in Europe only where annual rainfall is greater than 800 mm, and in New Zealand where rainfall is 800-1600 mm (Atkinson, 1984). Otherwise, little has been published on the climatic limits of C. vitalba.

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
0	0	0	0

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	16	19

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	800	1600	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Winter

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

light
medium

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages
Monophadnus spinolae	Herbivore	Plants\|Leaves
Phoma clematadina	Pathogen	Plants\|Leaves
Phytomyza vitalbae	Herbivore	Plants\|Leaves

Notes on Natural Enemies

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In 1989-90, a field survey identified 81 phytophagous species that attacked C. vitalba in central Europe, including 31 insects, four mites and four nematode species that were regarded as monophagous or oligophagous (Groppe, 1991; Wittenberg and Groppe, 1991, 1992; Wittenberg and Schroeder, 1993; Wittenberg, 1994). A field survey for plant pathogens was carried out in Europe and North America in 1990. Pathogenic fungi were isolated from 57 collections from nine countries (Spiers, 1991; Gourlay et al., 2000).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

The feathery styles assist wind dispersal of achenes (West, 1991) but propagules can also be spread along watercourses.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Dumping of garden waste containing C. vitalba vines onto roadsides has been a significant cause of spread in New Zealand (West, 1992). Achenes can be spread by adhesion to animals.

Accidental Introduction

This weed appears to invade along roadsides by seed, possibly aided by the turbulence created by motor vehicles.

Intentional Introduction

C. vitalba is an attractive climber, and was originally introduced to New Zealand, Australia and the USA as an ornamental.

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Soil, sand and gravel	Water	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Fruits (inc. pods)	weeds/seeds
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)	weeds/seeds

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Growing medium accompanying plants
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
Wood

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	None
Biodiversity (generally)	Negative
Crop production	None
Environment (generally)	Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	Negative
Human health	None
Livestock production	None
Native fauna	Negative
Native flora	Negative
Rare/protected species	Negative
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	None
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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C. vitalba is generally regarded as a minor weed in European vineyards. However, Angelini et al. (2003) identified a phytoplasma in C. vitalba that is associated with a serious grape disease and it is also a host for Alfalfa mosaic virus (Polak, 1986). They highlighted the risk of disease transmission posed by wild plants such as C. vitalba growing in or near vineyards. C. vitalba is largely an environmental weed in New Zealand, and causes little direct economic damage. However, the total cost expended by the New Zealand Department of Conservation to manage the impact of C. vitalba in native habitats from 1989 to 1994 was approximately US$500,000 (Gourlay et al., 2000; Hill et al., 2001), and total expenditure by all agencies over this period exceeded US$2 million (Hill et al., 2001). C. vitalba is also poisonous to grazing animals but the direct costs of this to the livestock industry has not been quantified (West, 1991).

Environmental Impact

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C. vitalba is not a significant environmental weed in Europe, North America, or Australia. Only in New Zealand has it caused serious environmental damage. C. vitalba infestation can reduce the forest structure, and change the recruitment patterns in forests (Ogle et al., 2000). It grows so strongly in forest margins and light gaps that vines can form a dense, light-absorbing canopy that suppresses all vegetation beneath it and can be so vigorous that the weight of foliage and stems breaks the supporting trees. C. vitalba can reduce small, healthy forest remnants to low, long-lived thickets of vines scrambling over the ground on forest debris (Hill et al., 2001).

Impact: Biodiversity

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Apart from changing forest structure, C. vitalba contributes to loss of biodiversity in New Zealand through local extinction of species or forms that are threatened, have restricted or disjunct distributions, or are biogeographically significant. It is common in National Parks and Reserves and infestations are a serious threat to the survival of many native forest remnants (Timmins, 1984; Ogle et al., 2000). Damage from C. vitalba also enhances invasion of native habitats by other invasive plants. Ogle et al. (2000) also point out that measures taken to control C. vitalba can also be damaging to biodiversity. C. vitalba does not hybridize with native Clematis species.

Social Impact

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Contact with C. vitalba foliage can cause irritant dermatitis in humans. Moore (1971) found the stems and leaves of C. vitalba in the rumen of an 18-month-old cow that died with symptoms consistent with poisoning. However, the toxicity of C. vitalba appears to vary seasonally and it can be controlled by judicious grazing (West, 1991). C. vitalba grows as a dense vertical curtain in forest margins or along the ground as a deep mass of wiry stems restricting access to affected areas by animals and humans. C. vitalba is clearly perceived as a serious social threat by the New Zealand public. Greer and Sheppard (1990) used a contingent valuation method to assess the value that New Zealanders placed on obtaining a solution to this problem. The public was prepared to pay US$22-56 million for research that provided a 'relatively small' likelihood of controlling the weed biologically.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts human health
Negatively impacts animal health
Negatively impacts tourism
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult/costly to control

Uses

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C. vitalba shoots are harvested and eaten in Italy (Pieroni, 1999) and other parts of Europe. Shoots must be boiled to inactivate the toxin protoanemonine (Pieroni, 1999). C. vitalba is also used as a ritual botanical to ward off evil spirits and 'turn away the evil eye' in Tuscany (Pieroni and Giusti, 2002). Leaf decoctions are used in homeopathic medicines for the treatment of urinary tract problems, and to treat inattention and shock. Flower essences are used in treatment of day-dreaming and inattention. There appear to be no recent references to the use of C. vitalba as a rootstock, but this appears to have been common practice in the past. The vigorous and sprawling habit of C. vitalba has been used to stabilize loose, stony slopes (Fisun, 1966). C. vitalba wood has wide vessels and Colville et al. (1979) suggested that carbonized wood of C. vitalba could be used as a matrix for bone regeneration in the treatment of fractures. It is principally used as an ornamental species.

Uses List

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Environmental

Graft stock

General

Ornamental

Materials

Poisonous to mammals

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Keys successfully distinguish C. vitalba from sympatric Clematis species in Europe by flower colour and structure, and by climbing habit. C. vitalba achenes are barely compressed whereas achenes of C. flammula are strongly compressed (Tutin et al., 1964). C. vitalba can be distinguished from C. tangutica because it has white rather than deeply yellow flowers, and because leaves are coarsely rather than finely toothed (Atkinson, 1984).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Sheep grazing will control C. vitalba seedlings and young vines growing at ground level, but potential damage to rare and endangered plants may make this approach questionable in many infested sites (Ogle et al., 2000).

Mechanical Control

Small seedlings can be removed by hand. Vines can be cut and pulled from trees by hand once the foliage has dried. Roots can be dug out, but should be placed off the ground where they cannot take root again. Treating cut stems with herbicides will also kill crowns and roots (Britt, 1994). Vines growing along the ground can be uprooted, but can regenerate from stem fragments left behind. Foliage trimming has no apparent effect on plants (Britt, 1994).

Chemical Control

C. vitalba foliage growing on fencelines, in wasteland, or as a monoculture can be successfully sprayed. A range of herbicides can be used to spray C. vitalba, including glyphosate, imazapyr, metsulfuron (Clay and Dixon, 2000) and clopyralid (Downard, 1986). Herbicide should be applied to pre-flowering foliage from late spring to late summer. Where broadcast spraying could have non-target effects, find the crown, cut the vines to ground level or to waist level in the winter or spring and spray the foliage that regenerates from crowns and stems in late summer. Alternatively, applying full strength herbicide by paint brush or dropper to the cut surface immediately after stems are cut close to the ground will also kill crowns and roots. Ward et al. (2000) found that a gel formulation of picloram was an effective stump treatment. These approaches impact least on surrounding vegetation. Growing in inaccessible areas can make adequate chemical control either too expensive to apply, or unsafe because the weed is interwoven with valued indigenous plants. Nevertheless, aerial spraying of native forest reserves has been conducted on the assumption that possible death of non-target plants from herbicide application is preferable to certain death in the darkness under the canopy of C. vitalba.

Biological Control

Three biological control control agents for C. vitalba have been released in New Zealand. Phytomyza vitalbae (Agromyzidae) was released in 1996, and spread widely (Hill et al., 2001). Laboratory studies suggest that moderate mining of leaves can significantly reduce the growth rate of seedlings, but the impact of this insect on C. vitalba in New Zealand has yet to be fully evaluated. Phoma clematidina (anamorphic Pleosporaceae) was also released in 1996, and is now widespread. This fungus causes leaf and stem necrosis, wilting, premature defoliation, and sometimes girdles stems (Gourlay et al., 2000). Epidemics have been observed, but their impact on C. vitalba infestations has not been measured. The sawfly Monophadnus spinolae (Tenthredinidae) has been released widely in New Zealand, but there is no evidence of establishment (Gourlay et al., 2000).

Integrated Control

C. vitalba grows rampantly on alluvial soils and over riparian vegetation. It is important to treat upstream infestations first to restrict re-invasion by water- and wind-blown seed.

References

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Distribution References

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