Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.
Preferred Common Name
- Mauritius hemp
Other Scientific Names
- Agave commelyni Salm-Dyck
- Agave foetida L.
- Agave gigantea (Vent.) D.Dietr.
- Agave madagascariensis (Haw.) Salm-Dyck
- Aloe foetida (L.) Crantz
- Fourcroya gigantea (Vent.) Hook
- Funium piliferum Willemet
- Furcraea atroviridis Jacobi & Goeff.
- Furcraea barillettii Jacobi
- Furcraea commelyni (Salm-Dyck) Kunth
- Furcraea gigantea Vent.
- Furcraea gigantea var. mediopicta Trel.
- Furcraea madagascariensis Haw.
- Furcraea viridis Hemsl.
- Furcraea watsoniana Sander
International Common Names
- English: cabuya; female karata; giant cabuya; green-aloe
- Spanish: cáñamo de Mauritania; cocuisa; mayuey criollo; pita floja; pita gigante
- French: aloès vert; chanvre de Maurice; choca vert; sisal de Maurice
- Portuguese: cânhamo-da-mauritânia; furcroia; pita; piteira-amarela
Local Common Names
- Comoros: agave; sisal
- Cuba: henequén de Haiti
- Germany: Mauritiushanf
- India: gheequar; sisal; vilayati
- Martinique: fausse salseparille
- Sweden: mauritiushampa
- Vietnam: agao to; thùa thoi
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageF. foetida is an evergreen perennial subshrub. From the 1690s to the 1920s, F. foetida was taken from its native Central America and spread worldwide for economic purposes (fibre). It is now also planted as an ornamental. It has established wild populations in many oceanic islands, and all continents in tropical to subtropical climates. F. foetida can establish dense impenetrable thickets (each plant can reach 3 metres across) on most well drained soils including rocks and sand. In the right conditions it can displace native vegetation. Due to its infrequent flowering, there is a lag-phase for establishment, but its reproduction by bulbils strongly promotes spread locally if it is not controlled.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Liliales
- Family: Asparagaceae
- Genus: Furcraea
- Species: Furcraea foetida
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageMost of the nomenclatural difficulties for Furcraea foetida seem to have been corrected before the 1920s. Furcraea gigantea and Agave gigantea are synonyms that have been used extensively in the literature, even recently. It is believed that much of the confusion about names up to 1915 is related to botanists observing the plant in different contexts, or without knowing the history of its human-mediated dispersal. This in turn has led to some confusion in determining the native range of F. foetida (see Distribution). For example, the common name (Mauritius hemp) and two synonyms (Agave madagascariensis and Furcraea madagascariensis) are presumably derived from its importance as a commodity in Madagascar and Mauritius, rather than being an indication of its native range.
F. foetida is also recorded as being in the Agavaceae family, and there are numerous Agave species that are similar. GRIN (2015) describes F. foetida in the family Asparagaceae (subfamily Agavoideae) as well as in the family Agavaceae.
Description
Top of pageFollowing Wagner et al. (1999):
Leaves are bright green, rigid, straight or curved, up to 2-2.5 m long, 14-20 cm wide, with a few widely spaced marginal prickles, especially toward base; these are 4-10 mm long, apex with a short blunt spine. Flowers strongly fragrant, in inflorescences 6-12 m long, bulbils usually formed after flowering; sepals white to green-white or pale yellow-green, 2.5-3.3 cm long, outer ones 1-1.4 cm wide, inner ones 1.4-1.8 cm wide. Fruit an ellipsoid-trigonous capsule, loculicidally 3-valved, with numerous but rarely produced seeds. Seeds flat, black.
Other online descriptions of F. foetida are available from the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2013), Vaughan (2011), Verhoek and Hess (2002) and Wagner et al. (1999).
Distribution
Top of pageThis plant is native to Central America and most likely to the northern-most part of South America. The adoption of F. foetida as a fibre plant, an ornamental and a living fence, since as early as the 1600s (and perhaps even before by indigenous cultures) has caused it to be spread widely across all continents except Antarctica.
Its early spread probably led to it being described as native in the northern Caribbean Islands (e.g. Haiti, Cuba and Puerto Rico), Brazil and perhaps elsewhere in South America, where it is now regarded as introduced. Some or much of its distribution in Colombia and Venezuela may be largely attributable to human-mediated spread (Drummond, 1907). It may be native in the Antilles islands closest to South America, but this is unclear.
It can be confidently said that F. foetida is native in Central America, Colombia, the Guianas, and Suriname and most likely the islands closest to the coast of northern South America. A checklist for Bolivia claims it is native there (Missouri Botanic Gardens, 2013), but it is most likely introduced there and in the rest of South America where it is known to occur.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | 2013 | Introduced | Invasive | |||
Comoros | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | Herbarium record | ||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mauritius | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rodrigues | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Almost 20% cover in 100 plots | |||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Used as a live fence | ||||
Réunion | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Much of the available habitat has already been invaded; Forms impenetrable thickets in forests | |||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Helena | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | 1944 | Introduced | Invasive | |||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Common on some islands, found on 7 | |||
South Africa | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Locally very abundant; An early detection and rapid response target | |||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Introduced | Grows well in Zanzibar | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Zimbabwe | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Forms fairly extensive colonies in secondary vegetation | |||
Asia |
|||||||
India | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Garden escape | |||
-West Bengal | Present, Localized | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Indonesia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Introduced | Growing in Bengkulu | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | Present in checklist | ||||
Singapore | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | In cultivation only | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Growing in western Sicily | ||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Spain | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Canary Islands | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive in semi-urban areas; Naturalized | |||
North America |
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Costa Rica | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Refers to this species as native, but it is also believed to be introduced | |||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | South Florida, locally invasive | |||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | All major islands | |||
Oceania |
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Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Lord Howe Island | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Queensland | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Generally invasive | |||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cook Islands | Present, Localized | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Tabuai, Hiva Oa, Tahiti, Makatea; Herbarium record | |||
Guam | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nauru | Present, Localized | Introduced | Recent introduction (in 1994), found on ruderal sites | ||||
New Caledonia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Locally abundant forming dense thickets | |||
-Kermadec Islands | Absent, Eradicated | 2002 | Eradicated from Raoul Island in 2002 | ||||
Niue | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized on southern part of island | |||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tonga | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Vanuatu | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
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Bolivia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Reference claims it is native, but literature consensus is that it is invasive | ||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Amapa | Present | Introduced | Herbarium record | ||||
-Bahia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
-Ceara | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
-Espirito Santo | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
-Minas Gerais | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
-Paraiba | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Displacing native vegetation | |||
-Pernambuco | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Displacing native vegetation | |||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
-Santa Catarina | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Subject to control for conservation purposes | |||
-Sao Paulo | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation | |||
Chile | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Easter Island | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | Herbarium record | ||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native | Islands of Margarita and Coche |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageFrom the 1690s to the 1920s, F. foetida was introduced to tropical islands in the Caribbean and Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Drummond, 1907; Rouillard and Guého, 1999). There was still much interest in the plant in 1915, when it was being sold for £35 per ton (approximately US$50, or equivalent to US$4500 today) (RBG Kew, 1917).
In Africa, F. foetida was introduced to most countries with a suitable climate before 1900 (Drummond and Prain, 1907). Fewer sites of introduction in Asia are known from the literature apart from India and Pakistan, where some plants were grown before 1907.
Its status as an invader is clearest on oceanic islands (especially Hawaii and the Indian Ocean archipelagos) and in Africa. It was well established in the hills above Port Louis, Mauritius, by the 1850s (Drummond, 1907), and wild populations were established in the Seychelles by 1900. In Hawaii and French Polynesia it was first recorded wild in the 1930s as evidenced by Bishop Museum specimens.
Its status as an invasive species is not well documented in the Caribbean islands, where it was long regarded as native. This is possibly because it is similar to other native Furcraea species in the region, and because it was introduced so long ago; most likely in the eighteenth century (Álvares de Zayas, 1996; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012). Considering that F. foetida is generally a poor disperser, it is likely introduced in the Greater Antilles (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012). This strongly suggests it was introduced in Puerto Rico too, contradicting the report from the USDA (Francis, 2003). It is sometimes said to be native in the Lesser Antilles, from Guadeloupe southwards, but no careful rationale for this claim could be found.
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Australia | 1890-1920 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Groves et al. (2003); Randall (2007) | Invasive: Queensland and Northern New South Wales | ||
Cuba | Haiti | 1700s | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Álvares Zayas Ade (1996) | Mainly near inhabited areas | |
Fiji | 1907 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | No | No | ||||
Florida | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | |||||
Guam | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Wagner et al. (2012) | Invasive | |||
Jamaica | < 1911 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | No | No | Missouri Botanical Garden (2013) | Specimen | ||
Mauritius | Central America | 1754 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Rouillard and Gueho (1999) | ||
Nauru | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Wagner et al. (2012) | Invasive | |||
New Zealand | 1850-1875 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Wilcox (2005) | Spread from Governor Gray’s plantings via bulbils | ||
Portugal | 1887 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Almeida and Freitas (2006) | |||
Réunion | < 1825 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Much of the available habitat already invaded | |||
Saint Helena | < 1915 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Kew (1917) | |||
South Africa | India | < 1888 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Crouch and Smith (2011) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageIn general, the risk of introduction of F. foetida to isolated sites or islands is unlikely by natural means, but possible via intentional human dispersal. F. foetida is unlikely to spread long distances by natural means, although it may be possible along rivers or during flooding, and long-distance dispersal by bats is a potential mode of introduction (Francis, 2003). The different uses of F. foetida make it an attractive plant, and likely to be subject to further intentional introductions. Accidental spread via movement of garden waste or machinery is also possible.
Habitat
Top of pageF. foetida grows well on rocky terrain, including lava, sand, and any well drained soil (xeric to mesic). It favours high to moderate light but tolerates some moderately closed forest canopies. Usually found in tropical areas, but also in some subtropical areas with infrequent frosts. It is recorded as invasive in coastal sites, coralline atolls, and inselberg habitats in and out of its native range.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number of F. foetida is 2n = 60 (Francis, 2003). Variegated varieties have been produced for horticulture and landscaping.
Reproductive Biology
F. foetida is monocarpic, dying after flowering, which occurs after approximately 7–10 years. About 200 leaves are produced during its lifetime. The leaves continue to elongate for about 5 months after bending away from the central spindle. At flowering, long slender poles are produced, with many flowers which open few at a time over several weeks. Pollination is thought to be by moths and bees. The plants rarely set seed, but dozens of bulbils are formed in the inflorescence, which develop roots after they fall to the ground (Francis, 2003).
Physiology and Phenology
F. foetida uses the Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic pathway, fixing carbon dioxide during the night and incorporating it into carbohydrates during the day.
Environmental Requirements
This plant generally grows best in a well-drained, medium to light soil, but can tolerate a wide range, including heavy clay soils. It is also very drought tolerant. Soil pH preferencesranges from pH 5.5 to pH 8. It prefers annual daytime temperatures between 23°C and 30°C, but can tolerate a range of 16-34°C (FAO, 2007).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
21 | 36 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 700 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scyphophorus acupunctatus | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | Harris (1936) |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe sisal weevil (Scyphophorus interstitialis [= S. acupunctatus]) can feed on F. foetida, and it is therefore considered a secondary host of S. acupunctatus (Harris, 1936).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Natural dispersal of F. foetida is mostly via gravity dispersed bulbils, a form of vegetative spread. Each bulbil is effectively a plantlet (Staples et al., 2000; Francis, 2003). Wind has been implicated in some spread in Australia (Harden, 1994). Flooded or riverside plants could conceivably have their bulbils transported downstream. Rare seeding events may occur, but it is unclear how these are dispersed.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Dispersal of the bulbils by fruit bats has been suggested for the Caribbean, although there is no direct evidence (PIER, 2013).
Accidental Introduction
Accidental introduction over long distances is unlikely, but could occur via construction equipment, heavy machinery or vehicles. Local disposal of garden waste could lead to further accidental introductions.
Intentional Introduction
F. foetida is now underutilized as fibre crop, but has been promoted as a xeric ornamental and a permaculture plant (RBG Kew, 1917; Huxley et al., 1999; Nugent, 2011). It is also used as a live fence in some situations (Bond, 1945). It is easily transported intentionally via the bulbils, which can fit in luggage or a pocket. In the future, F. foetida may be considered as a biofuel crop (Davis et al., 2011).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | A fibre plant and ornamental | Yes | Yes | Kew (1917) |
Garden waste disposal | Garden plant with bulbils could establish | Yes | Yes | |
Landscape improvement | Xeric landscaping plant | Yes | Yes | |
Nursery trade | Xeric landscaping plant | Yes | Yes | |
Ornamental purposes | Xeric landscaping plant | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageThe only known economic impacts of F. foetida are the control costs for labour and herbicides in natural areas.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
F. foetida is mainly a weed of waste areas and is invasive in coastal areas and sites with little soil, such as lava flows in Hawaii and the Pacific. It has become dominant on many tropical islands (including atolls) around the world. It displaces and competes with surrounding vegetation. It is controlled for conservation purposes in New Zealand, Hawaii, South Africa, Florida and Brazil (Motooka et al., 2002; Wilcox, 2005; Howell and Sawyer, 2006; Howell, 2008; Crouch and Smith, 2011; Randall, 2012; Dechoum and Ziller, 2013; Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013). F. foetida has invaded inselberg plant communities in Africa, which are known to have a high diversity of rare plants (Barthlott and Porembski, 1996; Fischer and Theisen, 2000). In Biscayne National Park, south Florida, it is recognized as invasive (National Park Service, 2013). In Australia, it is regarded as an environmental weed that has not yet reached its full impact potential (Randall, 2001).
Impact on Biodiversity
F. foetida can threaten bromeliad species and coastal plants of conservation concern in Brazil (Dechoum and Ziller, 2013). A rare orchid, Eulophia guineensis, on Cape Verde is threatened by F. foetida (Marrero and Almeida Pérez, 2013). In Hawaii the subshrubs Schiedea apokremnos and S. spergulina var. leiopoda [Scheidea spergulina] can be outcompeted by F. foetida and several other invasive species that invade coastal cliffs (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003; 2010a).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eulophia guineensis | National list(s) | Cape Verde | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - shading | Marrero and Almeida (2013) | |
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - shading; Competition - smothering; Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2003); US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a) | |
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda | National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - shading; Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition (unspecified)
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Rapid growth
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
F. foetida has been utilized since the 1600s, possibly even earlier by indigenous cultures, as a fibre crop. It is now also used as an ornamental plant, for permaculture, as a hedge, as a live fence and for various medicinal uses (RBG Kew, 1917; Bond, 1945; IPK, 2003; Nugent, 2011; Vaughan, 2011). Other uses include fish poison and a fertilizer (derived from burnt leaves) (Vaughan, 2011), In the future it may be considered as a biofuel crop (Davis et al., 2011).
Environmental Services
F. foetida is sometimes planted for erosion control, for example to stabilise the contours of bunds and the edges of paths and roads.
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Revegetation
Fuels
- Biofuels
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
Materials
- Chemicals
- Fibre
- Pesticide
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Potted plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageFurcraea foetida is similar to F. hexapetala, F. selloa, F. stricta, and F. tuberosa. Further information on how to distinguish it from similar species can be found in the Weeds of Australia factsheet (Queensland Government, 2013).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Rapid response
F. foetida has been put on surveillance lists in some parts of South Africa (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013).
Physical/mechanical control
A related species, F. hexapetala, was uprooted manually from lava flows on Isabela Island, Galapagos, Ecuador. Plants were allowed to dry upside down in the sun. This could also be an option for F. foetida. However, non-target damage to surrounding plants is possible during uprooting or hacking. Bulbils (plantlets) from the inflorescence should be gathered and removed from the site after parent plants are removed. This is also the case when using herbicide on parent plants.
Movement control
F. foetida is a declared invasive species and is banned from sale and distribution in French Polynesia (ISSG, 2013).
Biological control
Small plants can be eaten by cattle (and probably other ungulates), but the adults are not vulnerable to herbivory (Francis, 2003).
Chemical control
Motooka et al. (2002) have shown that F. foetida can be treated with triclopyr in oil, applied to the bases of leaves around the whole meristem. The same method using water instead of oil was not effective. Another study found that applying 4% triclopyr to cuts in the base of the plants was 100% effective, but injection of 48% triclopyr to the base was not effective (Dechoum and Ziller, 2013). Triclopyr does not need to be sprayed (only dripped) onto plant bases, but it can affect other plants if they come in contact with the herbicide.
IPM programmes
Control measures should be followed by the planting of desirable, native plants where possible. This could pre-empt the common occurrence of other unwanted species colonizing control areas.
Ecosystem restoration
Ecosystem restoration appears to be practiced in valued sites on a small scale in Hawaii, New Zealand (Raoul Island) and Brazil, where F. foetida is tackled along with a suite of other invaders (West and Thompson, 2013).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageIt would be interesting to carry out phylo-geographic studies using DNA sequencing to determine the relationships and timing of F. foetida’s spread around the world. This could help to validate its history in South America and the Caribbean, where its status as a native species is unclear.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Akhter R, Ghazanfar SA, 1984. Agavaceae. In: Flora of Pakistan. Karachi, Pakistan: Department of Botany, University of Karachi and Islamabad, Pakistan
Akoegninou A, Burg WJ Van Der, Maesen LJG Van der, Adjakidje V, Essou JP, Sinsin B, Yedomonhan H, 2006. [English title not available]. (Flore analytique du Benin). Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys, 1034 pp
Álvares de Zayas A, 1996. [English title not available]. (El genero Furcraea (Agavaceae) en Cuba.) Anales Del Instituto de Biologia, Serie Botanica, 67(2):329-346
Bond WE, 1945. Suitability of various hedge plants and live fencing poles in Northern Nigeria. Farm and Forest, 6:22-26
Boufford DE, Ohashi H, Huang TC, Hsieh CF, Tsai JL, Yang KC, Hsiao A, 2003. A checklist of the vascular plants of Taiwan. In: Flora of Taiwan, 2nd edn. Taipei, Taiwan: Editorial Committee, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, 15-139
Brown LC, 1982. The flora and fauna of St. Helena. London, UK: Land Resources Development Centre, 88 pp
BVN, 2013. Furcraea foetida. Vietnam Plant Data Center, Botany Research and Development Group of Vietnam. http://www.botanyvn.com/cnt.asp?param=edir&v=Furcraea%20foetida&list=species&lg=en
Chevalier A, 1910. Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (Herbarium specimen). http://science.mnhn.fr/institution/mnhn/search
Chong KY, Tan HT, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp
de Almeida JD, Freitas H, 2006. Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal - A reassessment. Botanica Complutensis, 30:117-130
Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013. Furcraea foetida (Mauritius Hemp). Mount Moreland Conservancy. http://www.mountmorelandconservancy.co.za/Invader-Plant-Species-within-the-Mount-Moreland-Conservancy/Furcraea-foetida-(Mauritius-Hemp).html
Drake DR, Motley TJ, Whistler WA, Imada CT, 1996. Rainforest vegetation of 'Eua Island, Kingdom of Tonga. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 34(1):65-77
Drummond JR, 1907. The literature of Furcraea with a synopsis of the known species. In: Missouri Botanical Garden Annual Report. 25-75
Drummond JR, Prain D, 1907. Notes on Agave and Furcraea in India. Whitefish, Montana, USA: Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 200 pp
Elorza MS, Vesperinas ES, Sánchez EDD, 2005. [English title not available]. (Aproximación al listado de plantas vasculares alóctonas invasoras reales y potenciales en las islas Canarias.) Lazaroa, 26:55-66
FAO, 2007. Ecocrop. http://ecocrop.fao.org/
Fischer E, Theisen I, 2000. Vegetation of Malagasy Inselbergs. In: Inselbergs, 146 [ed. by Porembski S. Barthlott W] Berlin, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 259-276
Fitzgerald WWA, 1898. Travels in the coastlands of British East Africa and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba: their agricultural resources and general characteristics. London, UK: Chapman & Hall, 824 pp
Forster PI, 1986. [Furcraea foetida]. Flora of Australia Online. Australian Biological Resources Study. http://www.anbg.gov.au/abrs/online-resources/flora/main-query-styles.html
Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural History of Cousin Island. Atoll Research Bulletin, 273-281. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39968914
Francis JK, 2003. Furcraea foetida L (Haw). San Juan, Puerto Rico: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry, 2 pp. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Furcraea%20foetida.pdf
GBIF, 2013. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org/species/
Govaerts R, Barker C, 2013. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do
GRIN, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), ARS-USDA, National Genetic Resources Program. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxgenform.pl
Groves RH, Hosking JR, Batianoff GN, Cooke DA, Cowie ID, Johnson RW, Moerkerk M, 2003. Weed categories for natural and agricultural ecosystem management. Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Rural Sciences, 200 pp
Harden G, 1994. [Furcraea foetida] in PlantNET. Sydney, Australia: The Plant Information Network System of The Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust. http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au
Harris WV, 1936. The sisal weevil. East Africa Agricultural and Forestry Journal, 2(2):114-126
Hill MJ, 2002. Biodiversity Surveys and Conservation Potential of Inner Seychelles Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 495:272 pp. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00495.00.pdf
Howell C, Sawyer JWD, 2006. New Zealand naturalised vascular plant checklist. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Conservation Network, 60 pp
Howell CJ, 2008. Consolidated list of environmental weeds in New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Science and Technical Publication, Department of Conservation, 42 pp
Huxley AJ, Griffiths M, Levy M, 1999. The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gardening. London, UK: Folio Society
Hyde MA, Wursten BT, Ballings P, 2013. Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw. Flora of Zimbabwe. http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=163420
Imada CT, 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum, 380 pp. http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/publications/pdf/tr60.pdf
IPK, 2003. Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Gatersleben, Germany: Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK). http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/apex/f?p=185:3:0::NO
ISSG, 2013. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Invasive Species Sepcialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/
Johnston JR, 1909. Flora of the islands of Margarita and Coche, Venezuela. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, 34(7):163-312
Leão T, Almeida WR de, Sá Dechoum M de, Ziller S, Leão TC, Ziller SR, 2011. [English title not available]. (Espécies exóticas invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas). Centro de Pesquisas Ambientales do Nordeste. http://cepan.org.br/uploads/file/arquivos/6b89ddc79ee714e00e787138edee8b79.pdf
Marrero Á, Almeida Pérez R, 2013. [English title not available]. (Las orquiídeas en Cabo Verde y reduscubrimiento de Eulophia guineensis Lindl. (Orchidaceae) en la Isla de Brava.) Botánica Macaronésica, 28:63-70
Meyer JY, 2009. [English title not available]. Plan de accion estratégico para luchar contra las plantes introducidas invasoras en Rapa Nui (Isla De Pascua). Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia: Ministère de l'Education, de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Gouvernement de Polinesia francesa., 65 pp. http://www.umtn-rapanui.com/pdf/Informe_Meyer_2008.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2013. Tropicos database. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org
Motooka P, Ching L, Nagai G, 2002. Herbicidal weed control methods for pasture and natural areas of Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, 36 pp. http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/wc-8.pdf
National Park Service, 2013. Exotic plants in Biscayne National Park. Washington DC, USA: National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/exotic-plants-in-biscayne-national-park.htm
Nugent J, 2011. Permaculture plants: Agaves and Cacti (2nd edn.). Nannup, Western Australia: Jeff Nugent, 104 pp
Oliva SR, Valdés B, Raimondo FM, 2002. Plantas Raras de la Flora Ornamental de Sicilia Occidental (Italia). Lagascalia, 22:35-79
Orchard AE, 1994. Flora of Australia, Vol. 50, Oceanic Islands 2. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service, 606 pp
Pandey RP, Diwakar PG, 2008. An integrated checklist flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Journal of Economic & Taxonomic Botany, 32:403-500
PIER, 2013. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pirani JR, Lopes RC, 2013. Asparagaceae [Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.]. List of species of the Brazilian flora. Brazil: Rio de Janiero Botanical Garden. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB112049
Queensland Government, 2013. Weeds of Australia. Biosecurity Queensland edition. Australia: University of Queensland. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/
Randall RP, 2012. A global compendium of weeds (2nd edn). Western Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp
RBG Kew, 1917. A List of Economic Plants Native or Suitable for Cultivation in the British Empire. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 7/8:241-296
Rouillard G, Gueho J, 1999. [English title not available]. (Les plantes et leur histoire à l'Ile Maurice). Port Louis, Mauritius: MSM Limited, 752 pp
Showler DA, Cote IM, Jones CG, 2002. Population census and habitat use of Rodrigues warbler Acrocephalus rodericanus. Bird Conservation International, 12(3):211-230
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Volume I. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii,, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 338-339
Smithsonian, 2013. Smithsonian Herbarium Record. http://collections.mnh.si.edu/search/botany/
Soubeyran Y, 2008. [English title not available]. (Espèces exotiques envahissantes dans les collectivités françaises d'outre-mer: Etat des lieux et recommandations.) Collection Planète Nature. Paris, France: Comité français de l'UICN, 55 pp
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/niue_report_2004.htm
Staples GW, Herbst DR, Imada CT, 2000. Survey of invasive or potentially invasive cultivated plants in Hawaii. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 65:35 pp
Supardi NI, 2013. Spectacular Ornamental Plant: Furcraea foetida in Bengkulu, Indonesia. Gallery of Bengkulu, Indonesia. http://potokito.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/spectacular-ornament-plant-furcraea.html
Thaman RR, Fosberg RF, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392:233 pp
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; final designation or non-designation of critical habitat for 95 plant species from the islands of Kauai and Niihau, Hawaii; final rule. Federal Register, 68(39):9116-9479
Vaughan G, 2011. Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw. Prota 16: Fibres/Plantes à fibres [ed. by Brink M, Achigan-Dako EG]. Wageningen, Netherlands: PROTA. http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Furcraea%20foetida_En.htm
Verhoek S, Hess WJ, 2002. Furcraea, Agavaceae. In: Flora of North America: Magnoliophyta: Liliidae: Liliales and Orchidales, 26 [ed. by Flora of North America Editorial Committee]. New York, USA: Oxford University Press USA, 461-462
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press, 1919 pp
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Tornabene MW, Lorence DH, 2012. Flora of Micronesia. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/micronesia/index.htm
West C, Thompson A, 2013. Small, dynamic and recently settled: responding to the impacts of plant invasions in the New Zealand (Aotearoa) archipelago. In: Plant invasions in protected areas, 7 [ed. by Foxcroft LC, Pyšek P, Richardson DM. Genovesi P]. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 285-311
Wilcox M, 2005. The genus Furcraea (Agavaceae) in the Auckland region. Auckland Botanical Society, 60:159-162
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida. http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Distribution References
Akhter R, Ghazanfar SA, 1984. Agavaceae. In: Flora of Pakistan, Karachi, Pakistan: Department of Botany, University of Karachi and Islamabad, Pakistan.
Akoegninou A, Burg WJ Van Der, Maesen LJG Van der, Adjakidje V, Essou JP, Sinsin B, Yedomonhan H, 2006. [English title not available]. (Flore analytique du Benin)., Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys. 1034 pp.
Boufford DE, Ohashi H, Huang TC, Hsieh CF, Tsai JL, Yang KC, Hsiao A, 2003. A checklist of the vascular plants of Taiwan. In: Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, Taiwan: Editorial Committee, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University. 15-139.
Brown LC, 1982. The flora and fauna of St. Helena., London, UK: Land Resources Development Centre. 88 pp.
BVN, 2013. Furcraea foetida., Vietnam Plant Data Center, Botany Research and Development Group of Vietnam. http://www.botanyvn.com/cnt.asp?param=edir&v=Furcraea%20foetida&list=species&lg=en
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chong KY, Tan HT, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.
de Almeida JD, Freitas H, 2006. Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal - A reassessment. In: Botanica Complutensis, 30 117-130.
Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013. (Furcraea foetida (Mauritius Hemp)). In: Mount Moreland Conservancy, http://www.mountmorelandconservancy.co.za/Invader-Plant-Species-within-the-Mount-Moreland-Conservancy/Furcraea-foetida-(Mauritius-Hemp).html
Drake DR, Motley TJ, Whistler WA, Imada CT, 1996. Rainforest vegetation of 'Eua Island, Kingdom of Tonga. In: New Zealand Journal of Botany, 34 (1) 65-77.
Drummond JR, 1907. The literature of Furcraea with a synopsis of the known species. In: Missouri Botanical Garden Annual Report, 25-75.
Drummond JR, Prain D, 1907. Notes on Agave and Furcraea in India., Whitefish, Montana, USA: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. 200 pp.
Fischer E, Theisen I, 2000. Vegetation of Malagasy Inselbergs. In: Inselbergs, 146 [ed. by Porembski S, Barthlott W]. Berlin, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 259-276.
Fitzgerald WWA, 1898. Travels in the coastlands of British East Africa and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba: their agricultural resources and general characteristics., London, UK: Chapman & Hall. 824 pp.
Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural History of Cousin Island. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 273-281. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39968914
Francis JK, 2003. Furcraea foetida L (Haw)., San Juan, Puerto Rico: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. 2 pp. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Furcraea%20foetida.pdf
GBIF, 2013. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Govaerts R, Barker C, 2013. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families., Richmond, Surrey, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do
Groves RH, Hosking JR, Batianoff GN, Cooke DA, Cowie ID, Johnson RW, Moerkerk M, 2003. Weed categories for natural and agricultural ecosystem management., Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Rural Sciences. 200 pp.
Harris W V, 1936. The Sisal Weevil. East African Agricultural Journal. 2 (2), 114-126 pp.
Hill MJ, 2002. Biodiversity Surveys and Conservation Potential of Inner Seychelles Islands. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 495 272 pp. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00495.00.pdf
Hyde MA, Wursten BT, Ballings P, 2013. Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw. In: Flora of Zimbabwe, http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=163420
Imada CT, 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum. 380 pp. http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/publications/pdf/tr60.pdf
ISSG, 2013. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Invasive Species Sepcialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/
Johnston JR, 1909. Flora of the islands of Margarita and Coche, Venezuela. [Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History], 34 (7) 163-312.
Leão T, Almeida WR de, Sá Dechoum M de, Ziller S, Leão TC, Ziller SR, 2011. [English title not available]. (Espécies exóticas invasoras no Nordeste do Brasil: Contextualização, Manejo e Políticas Públicas). In: Centro de Pesquisas Ambientales do Nordeste, http://cepan.org.br/uploads/file/arquivos/6b89ddc79ee714e00e787138edee8b79.pdf
Marrero Á, Almeida Pérez R, 2013. [English title not available]. (Las orquiídeas en Cabo Verde y reduscubrimiento de Eulophia guineensis Lindl. (Orchidaceae) en la Isla de Brava). In: Botánica Macaronésica, 28 63-70.
Meyer JY, 2009. [English title not available]. (Plan de accion estratégico para luchar contra las plantes introducidas invasoras en Rapa Nui (Isla De Pascua))., Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia: Ministère de l'Education, de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Gouvernement de Polinesia francesa. 65 pp. http://www.umtn-rapanui.com/pdf/Informe_Meyer_2008.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2013. Tropicos database., St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org
Oliva SR, Valdés B, Raimondo FM, 2002. (Plantas Raras de la Flora Ornamental de Sicilia Occidental (Italia)). In: Lagascalia, 22 35-79.
Orchard AE, 1994. Flora of Australia., 50 Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service. 606 pp.
Pandey RP, Diwakar PG, 2008. An integrated checklist flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. In: Journal of Economic & Taxonomic Botany, 32 403-500.
Pirani JR, Lopes RC, 2013. (Asparagaceae [Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw]). In: List of species of the Brazilian flora, Brazil: Rio de Janiero Botanical Garden. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB112049
Showler DA, Cote IM, Jones CG, 2002. Population census and habitat use of Rodrigues warbler Acrocephalus rodericanus. In: Bird Conservation International, 12 (3) 211-230.
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova. In: A new flora of Fiji, I Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 338-339.
Smithsonian, 2013. Smithsonian Herbarium Record., http://collections.mnh.si.edu/search/botany/
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta., http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/niue_report_2004.htm
Supardi NI, 2013. Spectacular Ornamental Plant: Furcraea foetida in Bengkulu, Indonesia., Indonesia: Gallery of Bengkulu. http://potokito.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/spectacular-ornament-plant-furcraea.html
Thaman RR, Fosberg RF, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 233 pp.
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Tornabene MW, Lorence DH, 2012. Flora of Micronesia., Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/micronesia/index.htm
West C, Thompson A, 2013. Small, dynamic and recently settled: responding to the impacts of plant invasions in the New Zealand (Aotearoa) archipelago. In: Plant invasions in protected areas, 7 [ed. by Foxcroft LC, Pysek P, Richardson DM]. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. 285-311.
Wilcox M, 2005. The genus Furcraea (Agavaceae) in the Auckland region. In: Auckland Botanical Society, 60 159-162.
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida. http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
eMonocot - Furcraea foetida | http://e-monocot.org/taxon/urn:kew.org:wcs:taxon:307055 | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
ISSG - Furcraea foetida | http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1257&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN | |
PIER - Furcraea foetida | http://www.hear.org/pier/species/furcraea_foetida.htm | |
PROTA - Furcraea foetida | http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Furcraea%20foetida_En.htm |
Contributors
Top of page23/12/13 Original text by:
Christopher E. Buddenhagen, Florida State University, USA
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