Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp)

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Caption

Copyright

Habit

Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp); habit, with human for scale. Maliko Gulch, Maui. March 2013

©Forest & Kim Starr Images-2013. CC-BY-3.0

Habit

Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp); habit. Maliko Gulch, Maui. March 2013

©Forest & Kim Starr Images-2013. CC-BY-3.0

Invasive, habit

Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp) Invasive, habit. Poelua West Maui, Maui. July 2009

©Forest & Kim Starr Images-2009. CC-BY-3.0

Habit in pasture

Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp); habit in pasture. Keokea, Maui. May 2009

©Forest & Kim Starr Images-2009. CC-BY-3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw.

Preferred Common Name

Mauritius hemp

Other Scientific Names

Agave commelyni Salm-Dyck
Agave foetida L.
Agave gigantea (Vent.) D.Dietr.
Agave madagascariensis (Haw.) Salm-Dyck
Aloe foetida (L.) Crantz
Fourcroya gigantea (Vent.) Hook
Funium piliferum Willemet
Furcraea atroviridis Jacobi & Goeff.
Furcraea barillettii Jacobi
Furcraea commelyni (Salm-Dyck) Kunth
Furcraea gigantea Vent.
Furcraea gigantea var. mediopicta Trel.
Furcraea madagascariensis Haw.
Furcraea viridis Hemsl.
Furcraea watsoniana Sander

International Common Names

English: cabuya; female karata; giant cabuya; green-aloe
Spanish: cáñamo de Mauritania; cocuisa; mayuey criollo; pita floja; pita gigante
French: aloès vert; chanvre de Maurice; choca vert; sisal de Maurice
Portuguese: cânhamo-da-mauritânia; furcroia; pita; piteira-amarela

Local Common Names

Comoros: agave; sisal
Cuba: henequén de Haiti
Germany: Mauritiushanf
India: gheequar; sisal; vilayati
Martinique: fausse salseparille
Sweden: mauritiushampa
Vietnam: agao to; thùa thoi

Summary of Invasiveness

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F. foetida is an evergreen perennial subshrub. From the 1690s to the 1920s, F. foetida was taken from its native Central America and spread worldwide for economic purposes (fibre). It is now also planted as an ornamental. It has established wild populations in many oceanic islands, and all continents in tropical to subtropical climates. F. foetida can establish dense impenetrable thickets (each plant can reach 3 metres across) on most well drained soils including rocks and sand. In the right conditions it can displace native vegetation. Due to its infrequent flowering, there is a lag-phase for establishment, but its reproduction by bulbils strongly promotes spread locally if it is not controlled.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Liliales
Family: Asparagaceae
Genus: Furcraea
Species: Furcraea foetida

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Most of the nomenclatural difficulties for Furcraea foetida seem to have been corrected before the 1920s. Furcraea gigantea and Agave gigantea are synonyms that have been used extensively in the literature, even recently. It is believed that much of the confusion about names up to 1915 is related to botanists observing the plant in different contexts, or without knowing the history of its human-mediated dispersal. This in turn has led to some confusion in determining the native range of F. foetida (see Distribution). For example, the common name (Mauritius hemp) and two synonyms (Agave madagascariensis and Furcraea madagascariensis) are presumably derived from its importance as a commodity in Madagascar and Mauritius, rather than being an indication of its native range.

F. foetida is also recorded as being in the Agavaceae family, and there are numerous Agave species that are similar. GRIN (2015) describes F. foetida in the family Asparagaceae (subfamily Agavoideae) as well as in the family Agavaceae.

Description

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Following Wagner et al. (1999):

Leaves are bright green, rigid, straight or curved, up to 2-2.5 m long, 14-20 cm wide, with a few widely spaced marginal prickles, especially toward base; these are 4-10 mm long, apex with a short blunt spine. Flowers strongly fragrant, in inflorescences 6-12 m long, bulbils usually formed after flowering; sepals white to green-white or pale yellow-green, 2.5-3.3 cm long, outer ones 1-1.4 cm wide, inner ones 1.4-1.8 cm wide. Fruit an ellipsoid-trigonous capsule, loculicidally 3-valved, with numerous but rarely produced seeds. Seeds flat, black.

Other online descriptions of F. foetida are available from the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2013), Vaughan (2011), Verhoek and Hess (2002) and Wagner et al. (1999).

Plant Type

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Herbaceous
Perennial
Succulent
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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This plant is native to Central America and most likely to the northern-most part of South America. The adoption of F. foetida as a fibre plant, an ornamental and a living fence, since as early as the 1600s (and perhaps even before by indigenous cultures) has caused it to be spread widely across all continents except Antarctica.

Its early spread probably led to it being described as native in the northern Caribbean Islands (e.g. Haiti, Cuba and Puerto Rico), Brazil and perhaps elsewhere in South America, where it is now regarded as introduced. Some or much of its distribution in Colombia and Venezuela may be largely attributable to human-mediated spread (Drummond, 1907). It may be native in the Antilles islands closest to South America, but this is unclear.

It can be confidently said that F. foetida is native in Central America, Colombia, the Guianas, and Suriname and most likely the islands closest to the coast of northern South America. A checklist for Bolivia claims it is native there (Missouri Botanic Gardens, 2013), but it is most likely introduced there and in the rest of South America where it is known to occur.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Last Reported	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Algeria	Present		Introduced		Drummond (1907)
Angola	Present		Introduced		Figueiredo and Smith (2008)
Benin	Present		Introduced		Akoegninou et al. (2006)
Cabo Verde	Present	2013	Introduced	Invasive	Govaerts and Barker (2013) Duarte et al. (2005) Marrero and Almeida Pérez (2013)
Comoros	Present, Widespread		Native		Missouri Botanical Garden (2013)
Congo, Republic of the	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Ghana	Present		Introduced		GBIF (2013)	Herbarium record
Kenya	Present		Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017)
Madagascar	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013) Fischer and Theisen (2000)
Malawi	Present		Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017)
Mauritius	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Kueffer et al. (2004)
-Rodrigues	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Showler et al. (2002)	Almost 20% cover in 100 plots
Nigeria	Present		Introduced		BOND (1945)	Used as a live fence
Réunion	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Baret et al. (2006)	Much of the available habitat has already been invaded; Forms impenetrable thickets in forests
Rwanda	Present		Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017) Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Saint Helena	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Brown (1982)
São Tomé and Príncipe	Present	1944	Introduced	Invasive	Figueiredo et al. (2011)
Senegal	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Seychelles	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Hill (2002) Fosberg (1983)	Common on some islands, found on 7
South Africa	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Crouch and Smith (2011) Department of Environmental Affairs (2013)	Locally very abundant; An early detection and rapid response target
Tanzania	Present		Introduced	Invasive	Witt and Luke (2017) HARRIS (1936)
-Zanzibar Island	Present		Introduced		Fitzgerald (1898)	Grows well in Zanzibar
Uganda	Present		Introduced	Naturalized	Witt and Luke (2017)	Naturalized
Zambia	Present		Introduced	Naturalized	Witt and Luke (2017)	Naturalized
Zimbabwe	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Hyde et al. (2013)	Forms fairly extensive colonies in secondary vegetation
Asia
India	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present		Introduced		Pandey and Diwakar (2008)
-Kerala	Present		Introduced	Invasive	Vikraman et al. (2008)	Garden escape
-West Bengal	Present, Localized		Introduced	Naturalized	Drummond and Prain (1907)	Naturalized
Indonesia	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Sumatra	Present		Introduced		Supardi (2013)	Growing in Bengkulu
Pakistan	Present		Introduced		Missouri Botanical Garden (2013) Akhter and Ghazanfar (1984) Lodhi et al. (2007)	Present in checklist
Singapore	Present, Only in captivity/cultivation		Introduced		Chong et al. (2009)	In cultivation only
Sri Lanka	Present		Introduced		Mabberley (1997)
Taiwan	Present		Introduced		Boufford et al. (2003)
Vietnam	Present		Introduced		BVN (2013)
Europe
Italy	Present		Introduced		Oliva et al. (2002)	Growing in western Sicily
Portugal	Present		Introduced	Invasive	de Almeida and Freitas (2006)
Spain	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Canary Islands	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Sanz-Elorza et al. (2005) Santos-Guerra et al. (2013)	Invasive in semi-urban areas; Naturalized
North America
Costa Rica	Present, Widespread		Native		Missouri Botanical Garden (2013)
Cuba	Present		Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Dominican Republic	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Guadeloupe	Present		Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Haiti	Present		Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Jamaica	Present		Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Martinique	Present		Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Netherlands Antilles	Present		Native		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Panama	Present, Widespread		Native		Missouri Botanical Garden (2013)
Puerto Rico	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Francis (2003)	Refers to this species as native, but it is also believed to be introduced
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present		Native		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Wunderlin and Hansen (2012)	South Florida, locally invasive
-Hawaii	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Imada (2012)	All major islands
Oceania
Australia	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Lord Howe Island	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Orchard (1994)
-New South Wales	Present		Introduced		Groves et al. (2003)
-Queensland	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Batianoff and Butler (2002)	Generally invasive
-Western Australia	Present		Introduced		Groves et al. (2003)
Cook Islands	Present, Localized		Introduced		Meyer (2000)
Fiji	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Smith (1979)
French Polynesia	Present		Introduced	Invasive	ISSG (2013) Smithsonian (2013)	Tabuai, Hiva Oa, Tahiti, Makatea; Herbarium record
Guam	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Wagner et al. (2012)
Nauru	Present, Localized		Introduced		Thaman et al. (1994)	Recent introduction (in 1994), found on ruderal sites
New Caledonia	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Meyer et al. (2006)
New Zealand	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Wilcox (2005)	Locally abundant forming dense thickets
-Kermadec Islands	Absent, Eradicated	2002			West and Thompson (2013)	Eradicated from Raoul Island in 2002
Niue	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Space et al. (2004)	Widely naturalized on southern part of island
Northern Mariana Islands	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Samoa	Present		Introduced		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
Tonga	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Drake et al. (1996)
Vanuatu	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Meyer (2000)
South America
Bolivia	Present, Widespread		Introduced		Missouri Botanical Garden (2013)	Reference claims it is native, but literature consensus is that it is invasive
Brazil	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Amapa	Present		Introduced		Smithsonian (2013)	Herbarium record
-Bahia	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
-Ceara	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
-Espirito Santo	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
-Goias	Present		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
-Minas Gerais	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
-Paraiba	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Leão et al. (2011)	Displacing native vegetation
-Pernambuco	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Leão et al. (2011)	Displacing native vegetation
-Rio de Janeiro	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
-Santa Catarina	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Dechoum and Ziller (2013)	Subject to control for conservation purposes
-Sao Paulo	Present, Widespread		Introduced	Invasive	Pirani and Lopes (2013)	Widely naturalized in: High altitude grassland, grassland, cerrado rock outcrop vegetation
Chile	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Easter Island	Present, Localized		Introduced	Invasive	Meyer (2009)
Colombia	Present		Native		Govaerts and Barker (2013)
French Guiana	Present		Native		Funk et al. (2007)
Guyana	Present		Native		Funk et al. (2007)
Peru	Present		Introduced		Smithsonian (2013)	Herbarium record
Suriname	Present		Native		Funk et al. (2007)
Venezuela	Present		Native		Johnston (1909)	Islands of Margarita and Coche

History of Introduction and Spread

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From the 1690s to the 1920s, F. foetida was introduced to tropical islands in the Caribbean and Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Drummond, 1907; Rouillard and Guého, 1999). There was still much interest in the plant in 1915, when it was being sold for £35 per ton (approximately US$50, or equivalent to US$4500 today) (RBG Kew, 1917).

In Africa, F. foetida was introduced to most countries with a suitable climate before 1900 (Drummond and Prain, 1907). Fewer sites of introduction in Asia are known from the literature apart from India and Pakistan, where some plants were grown before 1907.

Its status as an invader is clearest on oceanic islands (especially Hawaii and the Indian Ocean archipelagos) and in Africa. It was well established in the hills above Port Louis, Mauritius, by the 1850s (Drummond, 1907), and wild populations were established in the Seychelles by 1900. In Hawaii and French Polynesia it was first recorded wild in the 1930s as evidenced by Bishop Museum specimens.

Its status as an invasive species is not well documented in the Caribbean islands, where it was long regarded as native. This is possibly because it is similar to other native Furcraea species in the region, and because it was introduced so long ago; most likely in the eighteenth century (Álvares de Zayas, 1996; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012). Considering that F. foetida is generally a poor disperser, it is likely introduced in the Greater Antilles (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012). This strongly suggests it was introduced in Puerto Rico too, contradicting the report from the USDA (Francis, 2003). It is sometimes said to be native in the Lesser Antilles, from Guadeloupe southwards, but no careful rationale for this claim could be found.

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Australia		1890-1920	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Groves et al. (2003); Randall (2007)	Invasive: Queensland and Northern New South Wales
Cuba	Haiti	1700s	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Álvares Zayas Ade (1996)	Mainly near inhabited areas
Fiji		1907	Horticulture (pathway cause)		No	No
Florida			Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No
Guam			Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Wagner et al. (2012)	Invasive
Jamaica		< 1911	Horticulture (pathway cause)		No	No	Missouri Botanical Garden (2013)	Specimen
Mauritius	Central America	1754	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Rouillard and Gueho (1999)
Nauru			Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Wagner et al. (2012)	Invasive
New Zealand		1850-1875	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Wilcox (2005)	Spread from Governor Gray’s plantings via bulbils
Portugal		1887	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Almeida and Freitas (2006)
Réunion		< 1825	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No		Much of the available habitat already invaded
Saint Helena		< 1915	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Kew (1917)
South Africa	India	< 1888	Horticulture (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Crouch and Smith (2011)

Risk of Introduction

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In general, the risk of introduction of F. foetida to isolated sites or islands is unlikely by natural means, but possible via intentional human dispersal. F. foetida is unlikely to spread long distances by natural means, although it may be possible along rivers or during flooding, and long-distance dispersal by bats is a potential mode of introduction (Francis, 2003). The different uses of F. foetida make it an attractive plant, and likely to be subject to further intentional introductions. Accidental spread via movement of garden waste or machinery is also possible.

Habitat

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F. foetida grows well on rocky terrain, including lava, sand, and any well drained soil (xeric to mesic). It favours high to moderate light but tolerates some moderately closed forest canopies. Usually found in tropical areas, but also in some subtropical areas with infrequent frosts. It is recorded as invasive in coastal sites, coralline atolls, and inselberg habitats in and out of its native range.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Rocky areas / lava flows	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Principal habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number of F. foetida is 2n = 60 (Francis, 2003). Variegated varieties have been produced for horticulture and landscaping.

Reproductive Biology

F. foetida is monocarpic, dying after flowering, which occurs after approximately 7–10 years. About 200 leaves are produced during its lifetime. The leaves continue to elongate for about 5 months after bending away from the central spindle. At flowering, long slender poles are produced, with many flowers which open few at a time over several weeks. Pollination is thought to be by moths and bees. The plants rarely set seed, but dozens of bulbils are formed in the inflorescence, which develop roots after they fall to the ground (Francis, 2003).

Physiology and Phenology

F. foetida uses the Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthetic pathway, fixing carbon dioxide during the night and incorporating it into carbohydrates during the day.

Environmental Requirements

This plant generally grows best in a well-drained, medium to light soil, but can tolerate a wide range, including heavy clay soils. It is also very drought tolerant. Soil pH preferencesranges from pH 5.5 to pH 8. It prefers annual daytime temperatures between 23°C and 30°C, but can tolerate a range of 16-34°C (FAO, 2007).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
21	36

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	16	34

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	700	2500	mm; lower/upper limits

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free
impeded

Soil reaction

alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Special soil tolerances

shallow

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Scyphophorus acupunctatus	Herbivore	Leaves	not specific	Harris, 1936

Notes on Natural Enemies

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The sisal weevil (Scyphophorus interstitialis [= S. acupunctatus]) can feed on F. foetida, and it is therefore considered a secondary host of S. acupunctatus (Harris, 1936).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal

Natural dispersal of F. foetida is mostly via gravity dispersed bulbils, a form of vegetative spread. Each bulbil is effectively a plantlet (Staples et al., 2000; Francis, 2003). Wind has been implicated in some spread in Australia (Harden, 1994). Flooded or riverside plants could conceivably have their bulbils transported downstream. Rare seeding events may occur, but it is unclear how these are dispersed.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Dispersal of the bulbils by fruit bats has been suggested for the Caribbean, although there is no direct evidence (PIER, 2013).

Accidental Introduction

Accidental introduction over long distances is unlikely, but could occur via construction equipment, heavy machinery or vehicles. Local disposal of garden waste could lead to further accidental introductions.

Intentional Introduction

F. foetida is now underutilized as fibre crop, but has been promoted as a xeric ornamental and a permaculture plant (RBG Kew, 1917; Huxley et al., 1999; Nugent, 2011). It is also used as a live fence in some situations (Bond, 1945). It is easily transported intentionally via the bulbils, which can fit in luggage or a pocket. In the future, F. foetida may be considered as a biofuel crop (Davis et al., 2011).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Crop production	A fibre plant and ornamental	Yes	Yes	Kew, 1917
Garden waste disposal	Garden plant with bulbils could establish	Yes	Yes
Landscape improvement	Xeric landscaping plant	Yes	Yes
Nursery trade	Xeric landscaping plant	Yes	Yes
Ornamental purposes	Xeric landscaping plant	Yes	Yes

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Negative

Economic Impact

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The only known economic impacts of F. foetida are the control costs for labour and herbicides in natural areas.

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Habitats

F. foetida is mainly a weed of waste areas and is invasive in coastal areas and sites with little soil, such as lava flows in Hawaii and the Pacific. It has become dominant on many tropical islands (including atolls) around the world. It displaces and competes with surrounding vegetation. It is controlled for conservation purposes in New Zealand, Hawaii, South Africa, Florida and Brazil (Motooka et al., 2002; Wilcox, 2005; Howell and Sawyer, 2006; Howell, 2008; Crouch and Smith, 2011; Randall, 2012; Dechoum and Ziller, 2013; Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013). F. foetida has invaded inselberg plant communities in Africa, which are known to have a high diversity of rare plants (Barthlott and Porembski, 1996; Fischer and Theisen, 2000). In Biscayne National Park, south Florida, it is recognized as invasive (National Park Service, 2013). In Australia, it is regarded as an environmental weed that has not yet reached its full impact potential (Randall, 2001).

Impact on Biodiversity

F. foetida can threaten bromeliad species and coastal plants of conservation concern in Brazil (Dechoum and Ziller, 2013). A rare orchid, Eulophia guineensis, on Cape Verde is threatened by F. foetida (Marrero and Almeida Pérez, 2013). In Hawaii the subshrubs Schiedea apokremnos and S. spergulina var. leiopoda [Scheidea spergulina] can be outcompeted by F. foetida and several other invasive species that invade coastal cliffs (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003; 2010a).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References
Eulophia guineensis	National list(s)	Cape Verde	Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - shading	Marrero and Almeida, 2013
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea)	CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition - shading; Competition - smothering; Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010a
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda	National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - shading; Competition - smothering	US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010b

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Competition (unspecified)
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Rapid growth
Produces spines, thorns or burrs

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

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Economic Value

F. foetida has been utilized since the 1600s, possibly even earlier by indigenous cultures, as a fibre crop. It is now also used as an ornamental plant, for permaculture, as a hedge, as a live fence and for various medicinal uses (RBG Kew, 1917; Bond, 1945; IPK, 2003; Nugent, 2011; Vaughan, 2011). Other uses include fish poison and a fertilizer (derived from burnt leaves) (Vaughan, 2011), In the future it may be considered as a biofuel crop (Davis et al., 2011).

Environmental Services

F. foetida is sometimes planted for erosion control, for example to stabilise the contours of bunds and the edges of paths and roads.

Uses List

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Environmental

Boundary, barrier or support
Revegetation

Fuels

Biofuels

General

Botanical garden/zoo

Materials

Chemicals
Fibre
Pesticide

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

Potted plant

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Furcraea foetida is similar to F. hexapetala, F. selloa, F. stricta, and F. tuberosa. Further information on how to distinguish it from similar species can be found in the Weeds of Australia factsheet (Queensland Government, 2013).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Rapid response

F. foetida has been put on surveillance lists in some parts of South Africa (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013).

Physical/mechanical control

A related species, F. hexapetala, was uprooted manually from lava flows on Isabela Island, Galapagos, Ecuador. Plants were allowed to dry upside down in the sun. This could also be an option for F. foetida. However, non-target damage to surrounding plants is possible during uprooting or hacking. Bulbils (plantlets) from the inflorescence should be gathered and removed from the site after parent plants are removed. This is also the case when using herbicide on parent plants.

Movement control

F. foetida is a declared invasive species and is banned from sale and distribution in French Polynesia (ISSG, 2013).

Biological control

Small plants can be eaten by cattle (and probably other ungulates), but the adults are not vulnerable to herbivory (Francis, 2003).

Chemical control

Motooka et al. (2002) have shown that F. foetida can be treated with triclopyr in oil, applied to the bases of leaves around the whole meristem. The same method using water instead of oil was not effective. Another study found that applying 4% triclopyr to cuts in the base of the plants was 100% effective, but injection of 48% triclopyr to the base was not effective (Dechoum and Ziller, 2013). Triclopyr does not need to be sprayed (only dripped) onto plant bases, but it can affect other plants if they come in contact with the herbicide.

IPM programmes

Control measures should be followed by the planting of desirable, native plants where possible. This could pre-empt the common occurrence of other unwanted species colonizing control areas.

Ecosystem restoration

Ecosystem restoration appears to be practiced in valued sites on a small scale in Hawaii, New Zealand (Raoul Island) and Brazil, where F. foetida is tackled along with a suite of other invaders (West and Thompson, 2013).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

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It would be interesting to carry out phylo-geographic studies using DNA sequencing to determine the relationships and timing of F. foetida’s spread around the world. This could help to validate its history in South America and the Caribbean, where its status as a native species is unclear.

References

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Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Akhter R, Ghazanfar SA, 1984. Agavaceae. In: Flora of Pakistan, Karachi, Pakistan: Department of Botany, University of Karachi and Islamabad, Pakistan.

Akoegninou A, Burg WJ Van Der, Maesen LJG Van der, Adjakidje V, Essou JP, Sinsin B, Yedomonhan H, 2006. [English title not available]. (Flore analytique du Benin)., Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys. 1034 pp.

Baret S, Rouget M, Richardson D M, Lavergne C, Egoh B, Dupont J, Strasberg D, 2006. Current distribution and potential extent of the most invasive alien plant species on La Réunion (Indian Ocean, Mascarene islands). Austral Ecology. 31 (6), 747-758. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/servlet/useragent?func=showIssues&code=aec DOI:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2006.01636.x

Batianoff G N, Butler D W, 2002. Assessment of invasive naturalized plants in south-east Queensland. Plant Protection Quarterly. 17 (1), 27-34.

BOND W E, 1945. Suitability of various hedge plants and live fencing poles in Northern Nigeria. Farm and Forest. 22-26.

Boufford DE, Ohashi H, Huang TC, Hsieh CF, Tsai JL, Yang KC, Hsiao A, 2003. A checklist of the vascular plants of Taiwan. In: Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, Taiwan: Editorial Committee, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University. 15-139.

Brown LC, 1982. The flora and fauna of St. Helena., London, UK: Land Resources Development Centre. 88 pp.

BVN, 2013. Furcraea foetida., Vietnam Plant Data Center, Botany Research and Development Group of Vietnam. http://www.botanyvn.com/cnt.asp?param=edir&v=Furcraea%20foetida&list=species&lg=en

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Chong KY, Tan HT, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Crouch N R, Smith G F, 2011. Agavaceae: Furcraea foetida: an invading alien in South Africa. Bothalia. 41 (1), 196-199. http://www.sanbi.org

de Almeida JD, Freitas H, 2006. Exotic naturalized flora of continental Portugal - A reassessment. In: Botanica Complutensis, 30 117-130.

Dechoum M de S, Ziller S R, 2013. Control techniques for invasive alien plants. (Métodos para controle de plantas exóticas invasoras.). Biotemas. 26 (1), 69-77. http://periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/biotemas/article/view/2175-7925.2013v26n1p69/24070

Department of Environmental Affairs, 2013. (Furcraea foetida (Mauritius Hemp)). In: Mount Moreland Conservancy, http://www.mountmorelandconservancy.co.za/Invader-Plant-Species-within-the-Mount-Moreland-Conservancy/Furcraea-foetida-(Mauritius-Hemp).html

Drake DR, Motley TJ, Whistler WA, Imada CT, 1996. Rainforest vegetation of 'Eua Island, Kingdom of Tonga. In: New Zealand Journal of Botany, 34 (1) 65-77.

Drummond JR, 1907. The literature of Furcraea with a synopsis of the known species. In: Missouri Botanical Garden Annual Report, 25-75.

Drummond JR, Prain D, 1907. Notes on Agave and Furcraea in India., Whitefish, Montana, USA: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. 200 pp.

Duarte M C, Rego F, Moreira I, 2005. Distribution patterns of plant communities on Santiago Island, Cape Verde. Journal of Vegetation Science. 16 (3), 283-292. DOI:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2005.tb02366.x

Figueiredo E, Paiva J, Stévart T, Oliveira F, Smith G F, 2011. Annotated catalogue of the flowering plants of São Tomé and Príncipe. Bothalia. 41 (1), 41-82. http://www.sanbi.org

Figueiredo E, Smith G F, 2008. Plants of Angola/Plantas de Angola. [ed. by Figueiredo E, Smith G F]. Pretoria, South Africa: South African National Biodiversity Institute. 279 pp.

Fischer E, Theisen I, 2000. Vegetation of Malagasy Inselbergs. In: Inselbergs, 146 [ed. by Porembski S, Barthlott W]. Berlin, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 259-276.

Fitzgerald WWA, 1898. Travels in the coastlands of British East Africa and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba: their agricultural resources and general characteristics., London, UK: Chapman & Hall. 824 pp.

Fosberg FR, 1983. Natural History of Cousin Island. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 273-281. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39968914

Francis JK, 2003. Furcraea foetida L (Haw)., San Juan, Puerto Rico: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. 2 pp. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Furcraea%20foetida.pdf

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander S N, 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55, 584 pp.

GBIF, 2013. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species

Govaerts R, Barker C, 2013. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families., Richmond, Surrey, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do

Groves RH, Hosking JR, Batianoff GN, Cooke DA, Cowie ID, Johnson RW, Moerkerk M, 2003. Weed categories for natural and agricultural ecosystem management., Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Rural Sciences. 200 pp.

HARRIS W V, 1936. The Sisal Weevil. East African Agricultural Journal. 2 (2), 114-126 pp.

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
eMonocot - Furcraea foetida	http://e-monocot.org/taxon/urn:kew.org:wcs:taxon:307055
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
ISSG - Furcraea foetida	http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1257&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN
PIER - Furcraea foetida	http://www.hear.org/pier/species/furcraea_foetida.htm
PROTA - Furcraea foetida	http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Furcraea%20foetida_En.htm

Contributors

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23/12/13 Original text by:

Christopher E. Buddenhagen, Florida State University, USA

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Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp)

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