Osmerus eperlanus

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Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Osmerus eperlanus (Linnaeus, 1758)

International Common Names

• English: European smelt
• Spanish: eperlano
• French: eperlan

Local Common Names

• Finland: kuore
• Germany: Stint
• Netherlands: spiering
• Sweden: nors

Summary of Invasiveness

Unlike other Osmerus species there is practically no evidence that O. eperlanus is invasive. On the contrary, many former populations have become extinct and this species is included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as 'Least Concern' (http://www.iucnredlist.org/). Only a few populations have ever become established from planned introductions.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Metazoa
•         Phylum: Chordata
•             Subphylum: Vertebrata
•                 Class: Actinopterygii
•                     Order: Osmeriformes
•                         Family: Osmeridae
•                             Genus: Osmerus
•                                 Species: Osmerus eperlanus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Most authors (e.g. Belyanina, 1958; Maitland, 2004) consider the European smelt to be a single species O. eperlanus. Kottelat and Freyhof (2007) tentatively suggest that 'available data do not exclude the possibility' of Osmerus eperlanus, on the basis of gill-raker numbers, being split into two separate species - O. eperlanus itself, a largely freshwater form from coastal areas of the Baltic, White and Barents Seas; and O. schonfoldi, a mainly anadromous form from the southern Baltic, North and Atlantic Seas. In the southern Baltic, Poland and Denmark, the two forms would be sympatric. There are no genetic data available to confirm that this is indeed the case however.

Description

O. eperlanus is a small to medium-sized fish whose adult size varies greatly according to habitat (Nellbring, 1989; Maitland, 2000; Davies et al., 2003; Kottelat and Freyhof, 2007). The normal range in length is 10-20 cm but some fish reach 30 cm. In general, fish from non-migratory freshwater populations are much smaller than those which have lived in the sea. It is a slender fish with large scales and eyes, a large mouth with a projecting lower jaw and obvious teeth on both jaws. It has a fleshy adipose fin between the dorsal and tail fins. Dorsal soft rays: 9-12; anal soft rays: 12-16; vertebrae: 55-62 (Froese and Pauly, 2012). Dorsal side light olive green, flanks silver stripe, belly creamy white (Froese and Pauly, 2012).

Distribution

O. eperlanus is found mainly as an anadromous form in the coastal waters, especially large estuaries, of the eastern Atlantic (from the Clyde in Scotland south to the Garonne in France), and of the North, Baltic, Barents and White Seas. Non-seagoing, purely freshwater populations occur in some lakes in coastal regions of the North, Baltic, Barents and White Seas (Maitland, 2007, Kottelat and Freyhof, 2007). Many former populations, including one in the UK (Rostherne Mere) have become extinct.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

There have been relatively few attempts to deliberately introduce of O. eperlanus to new sites, or to re-establish them in waterbodies where they have been recorded previously. Most of these have failed, although the reasons for failure are rarely cited (Maitland, 2003). In the 1930s and 1960s, O. eperlanus was introduced to 47 lakes in Karelia, the Kola Peninsula and the South Urals. It became established in very few of these waters, for example, in the South Urals it formed a permanent population in only one of eight lakes into which it was introduced (Korlyakov and Mukhachev, 2009). In England, the only landlocked population in Rostherne Mere, became extinct in 1921 (Davies et al., 2003), although it has been suggested that this population may have been originally introduced (Ellison and Chubb, 1968). Recent attempts in Scotland (Maitland et al., 2008) to reintroduce this species from the River Cree to the River Fleet (where it occurred formerly) have not so far been successful.

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

Although O. eperlanus has been introduced and become established in new waters in the past, most such introductions have failed and there is little evidence that the species is likely to be invasive. As a coastal/estuarine species, O. eperlanus has the opportunity to either invade new catchments or recolonize waters from which it has previously been eliminated.

Habitat

O. eperlanus occurs in coastal waters and estuaries and migrates into large clean rivers at spawning time. The species is tolerant of wide salinity changes and several non-migratory purely freshwater populations exist in large freshwater lakes in Finland, Sweden and Norway (Maitland, 2000). The sole freshwater population in the British Isles, in Rostherne Mere in Cheshire, became extinct many decades ago in the 1920s, probably as a result of eutrophication (Ellison and Chubb, 1968; Davies et al., 2003).

This fish favours unpolluted estuaries except during spawning time when the migrate en masse into freshwater habitats to spawn. The upstream spawning migration can be quite short, and  usually extends only as far as the upper limit of tidal influence. The presence of in-stream, usually man-made, structures can also have a negative impact on reproductive success, by limiting access to spawning sites. Many estuaries which formerly had large populations lost them as pollution increased and water quality declined, meaning that the species is much less common than it was in the past (Maitland, 2003, 2004). However, its return to waters such as the rivers Thames and Trent (Davies et al., 2003), as they become cleaner is a welcome sign and one which it is hoped will be repeated on other recovering rivers.

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Reproductive Biology

On reaching maturity, adults migrate up the estuaries and into the lower reaches of rivers in March and April. Usually the run in each river occupies only a few days, but during that time the spawning activity becomes furious and the sticky eggs attach themselves to everything on the river bed - gravel, stones, weed and sticks (Hutchinson and Mills, 1987). If the river level drops subsequently many eggs may be left exposed, dessicate and die. The adults are very vulnerable to all kinds of predators (including humans) at this time and occasionally become so preoccupied during the actual spawning event that they swim right out of the water and strand themselves on dry land (Maitland, 2004).

Each female lays about 10,000-40,000 pale yellow eggs (0.9 mm in diameter) and these hatch in about 20-35 days according to the local temperature. The eggs are often laid in quite fast flowing water and the young are swept quickly down into the upper estuary where they start to feed. Though there is considerable mortality among the adults during spawning, many do manage to return to the sea where they recover to grow further and spawn again in subsequent years (Shpilev et al., 2005). Lake populations of this species usually spawn in or near the mouths of rivers entering the lake or along suitable shores (Maitland and Campbell, 1992).

Physiology and Phenology

As an anadromous species, O. eperlanus has a wide tolerance of salinity ranges.

Longevity

Growth is a very variable process in this species according to local conditions (Garnas, 1982; Shpilev et al., 2005). In suitable estuaries the young may reach 10 cm by the end of the first year and some 15 cm by the third year which is usually when they start to breed. They may live for several years beyond this, reaching lengths of about 20 cm at 6 or 7 years of age (Maitland, 2004). The males are usually smaller than the females and average weights are about 28 and 36 g respectively.

Activity Patterns

Most of the life of O. eperlanus is spent in coastal waters and estuaries but at spawning time (usually around March-April) the adult fish undertake spawning migrations to reproduce in fresh water, usually in the mouths of local rivers at the head of tide (Lyle and Maitland, 1997).

Population Size and Density

There can be large variations in the year class abundance of O. eperlanus, depending largely on mortality rates during incubation and early development (Shpilev et al., 2005). Obtaining accurate population estimates are difficult for this species, particlarly given that they often move into spawning sites and leave quickly once that is completed.  There are few data on actual population size but Lyle and Maitland (1997) estimated the adult population in the River Cree in the 1960s to be at least 60,000. Later studies, such as Ribbens and Graham (2004), estimated the same population to comprise >25,000 fish.

Nutrition

O. eperlanus fry are very small at first and feed on minute zooplankton, probably protozoans and rotifers (Naesje et al., 1987). As they grow they take larger planktonic crustaceans and some bottom animals; eventually they become quite voracious predators taking larger crustaceans (shrimps (Caridea) and mysids (Mysidae)) and young fish such as sprat (Sprattus sprattus), herring (Clupea harengus), whiting (Merlangius merlangus) and gobies (Gobiidae; Hutchinson, 1983). Nilsson (1979) reports the following diet from the offshore region of Lake Vanern, Sweden: Cladocera 27.3%, copepods 34.5%, mysids 3.6%, insects 3.6% and fish 0.9%). See also Maitland and Campbell (1992).

Latitude/Altitude

Natural Enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

O. eperlanus has a wide range of predators, especially when adults run into shallow rivers to spawn. They are an important element in the diet of many piscivorous fish (Vijverberg et al., 1990; Vehanen et al., 1998). At that time they are vulnerable to otters (Lutra lutra) and mink (Neovison vison/Mustela lutreola) and a wide range of piscivorous birds, including herons (Ardea cinerea), mergansers (Mergus serrator), goosanders (Mergus merganser), and gulls (Laridae).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

O. eperlanus is a coastal/estuarine species that is capable of spreading to new water bodies naturally.

Intentional Introduction

There are relatively few records of intentional introductions of O. eperlanus for conservation or fishery development purposes. Where these have occurred, success has been limited and most have failed.

Pathway Causes

Environmental Impact

Rainbow smelt O. mordax, introduced to the North American Great Lakes, has caused significant ecosystem shifts since its arrival there in the early part of the twentieth century (e.g. Rooney and Paterson, 2009). By contrast, introduced O. eperlanus has not shown the same negatively impacted native fish communities (Korlyakov and Mukhachev, 2009). However, one of the few waters where the introduction of O. eperlanus has caused problems is Syamozero Lake in Karelia, northwest Russia (Ieshko et al., 2000). Here, the accidental introduction led to the development of a large population and this caused serious changes in fish community structure and trophic relationships in this lake.

Risk and Impact Factors

Invasiveness

• Abundant in its native range
• Fast growing
• Has a broad native range
• Has high reproductive potential
• Highly mobile locally
• Is a habitat generalist

Uses

Economic Value

Several commercial fisheries for O. eperlanus still exist within the UK and these rely mainly on their vulnerability during the short spawning run to catch them (sometimes in enormous numbers) in traps and nets (Maitland, 2003). Only three populations are known to remain in Scotland, yet all have been the subject of fisheries until recently. On the River Cree in some years up to six tonnes were taken from the spawning run - probably a high percentage of the population there and undoubtedly a threat to its existence. In some parts of Europe O. eperlanus is caught in the estuaries in drift nets and trawls (Groot, 1989) and sold either fresh or smoked (Shpilev et al., 2005). In some countries, much of the catch is sold as bait for pike (Esox lucius).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Bait/attractant
• Fishmeal

Human food and beverage

• Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

The European smelt O. eperlanus is an eastern Atlantic species not dissimilar in appearance of life history to the rainbow smelt O. mordax of the western Atlantic which occupies a similar niche in North American coastal waters and estuaries (Scott and Crossman, 1985). However, the latter species is known to be extremely invasive and has caused problems in some waters to which it has been introduced. For example in inland lakes surrounding the Laurentian Great Lakes, following its earlier introduction and spread from the Great Lakes (Frie and Spangler, 1985; Roth et al., 2010), it has led to declines in several native fish species. The ecosystem effects of O. mordax have been reviewed by Rooney and Paterson (2009). The taxonomic status of Osmerus schonfoldi is not clear, this species or subspecies differs from O. eperlanus eperlanus in having 27-32 gill rakers compared with 33-38 gill rakers in the latter. 

Prevention and Control

There are no reports of this species being controlled.

References

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Contributors

13/03/12 Original text by:

Peter Maitland, Fish Conservation Centre, Gladshot, Haddington, EH41 4NR, UK.

Reviewers' names are available on request.

Distribution Maps

• = Present, no further details
• = Evidence of pathogen
• = Widespread
• = Last reported
• = Localised
• = Presence unconfirmed
• = Confined and subject to quarantine
• = See regional map for distribution within the country
• = Occasional or few reports

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