Datasheet
Tridax procumbens (coat buttons)
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Pictures
Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |  | Title | T. procumbens in the field |
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| Caption | T. procumbens plant. |
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| Copyright | ©S.D. Sawant |
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| T. procumbens in the field | T. procumbens plant. | ©S.D. Sawant |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Tridax procumbens L. (1753)
Preferred Common Name
International Common Names
- English: p.w.d.weed
- Spanish: mata gusano
- French: herbe caille (Mauritius)
Local Common Names
- Australia: Tridax daisy
- Brazil: erva-de-touro
- Central America: hierba del toro
- Colombia: cadillo chisaca
- Germany: Dreibiss, Niederliegender
- India: bisalyakarmi; mukkuthipoo
- Indonesia: cemondelan; glentangan; gletang; gobesan; katumpang; londotan; orang aring
- Japan: kotobukigiku
- Madagascar: anganiay
- Malaysia: kanching baju
- Mexico: flor amarilla
- Myanmar: mive sok ne-gya
- USA: Tridax daisy
EPPO code
- TRQPR (Tridax procumbens)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page
- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Tridax
- Species: Tridax procumbens
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe taxonomic status of this species is clearly defined and universally accepted. The name Tridax refers to the three lobes of the ray flowers while procumbens refers to the prostrate, trailing habit of the stems (Holm et al., 1997).
Description
Top of pagePerennial herb with a firm taproot. Branches ascending from a creeping base, brittle, 20-75 cm long. Stem cylindrical, often purplish, sparsely and patently long- and white-pubescent. Leaves opposite, oblong-ovate, herbaceous or somewhat succulent; pinnately nerved, 2.5-6 x 2-4.5 cm, midrib strongly prominent below, both sides sparsely and patently long white-hirsute; petiole concave, long-hairy, 0.8-2.5 cm long. Flower heads terminal and axillary, 2 x 1 cm, erect-patently long-peduncled (10-40 cm), rather sparsely long-hirsute; 3-seriate, 5-9 cm long, base attenuate; outer bracts smallest, foliaceous, green; green; inner ones membraneous, usually purplish-margined; receptacle slightly convex, paleate; paleas linear, subpersistent, 5-8 mm long. Ray flowers 5-6, female; corolla 8-9 mm long with greenish-yellow limb, 3-4 lobed, pale yellow or white; ovary long, white, hairy. Disc flowers numerous, dense, erect, inner flowers numerous, dense, erect, inner ones longest; corolla 6-7.5 mm long, bright yellow, lobes 5; ovary with long white hairs; anthers cuneate, yellow with apical valve, 1.5 mm long; style arms long, acute, pilose. Achenes angular, dark brown to black, densely white long-hairy, 1.8-2.3 mm long, with 15-20 patent, 3-6 mm long rather stiff, feathered, unequal bristles.
The seedling hypocotyl is 1-7 mm long. The two cotyledons are glandular-hairy, green or purplish and have petioles 2-5 mm long. The first two true leaves are glandular-hairy with petioles 2-7 mm long and ovate to lanceolate blades 6-14 by 6-7.5 mm. The midnerve is distinctly prominent on the lower leaf surface (Soerjani et al., 1987).
Distribution
Top of pageT. procumbens originated in Central America but now occurs throughout the tropics and subtropics. It was reportedly introduced into Nigeria as an ornamental in the early 1900s and later spread from there to many other tropical countries (Holm et al., 1997).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
| Country | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | References | Notes | ASIA |
| Bangladesh | Present | | | | | Rahman et al., 2008 | |
| Cambodia | Restricted distribution | | | | | Waterhouse, 1993; EPPO, 2014 | |
| China | Restricted distribution | | | | | Wang, 1990; EPPO, 2014 | |
| -Yunnan | Present | | | | | Zhao et al., 2008 | |
| India | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; EPPO, 2014 | |
| -Andhra Pradesh | Present | | | | | Maruthi et al., 2005 | |
| -Gujarat | Present | | | | | Bhattacharyya & Pandya, 1996 | |
| -Indian Punjab | Present | | | | | Sidhu & Bir, 1987 | |
| -Karnataka | Present | | | | | Sridhara et al., 1995 | |
| -Kerala | Present | | | | | Devi et al., 1993 | |
| -Madhya Pradesh | Present | | | | | Oudhia, 2001 | |
| -Maharashtra | Present | | | | | Pawar & Barkhede, 1991 | |
| -Odisha | Present | | | | | Mishra et al., 2003 | |
| -Tamil Nadu | Present | | | | | Paliwal & Ilangovan, 1988 | |
| -Uttar Pradesh | Present | | | | | Alam & Anis, 1987 | |
| Indonesia | Restricted distribution | | | | | Soerjani et al., 1987; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Iran | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Iraq | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Israel | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Japan | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Jordan | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Korea, Republic of | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Lebanon | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Malaysia | Restricted distribution | | | | | Barnes & Chan, 1990; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Myanmar | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1993 | |
| Nepal | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Pakistan | Present | | | | | Khalid, 1995 | |
| Philippines | Restricted distribution | | | | | Moody et al., 1984; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Singapore | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1993 | |
| Sri Lanka | Restricted distribution | | | | | Pemadasa, 1976; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Taiwan | Restricted distribution | | | | | Department of Agronomy, 1968; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Thailand | Restricted distribution | | | | | Noda et al., 1985; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Turkey | Present | | | | | | |
| Vietnam | Restricted distribution | | | | | Minh-Si, 1969; EPPO, 2014 | |
AFRICA |
| Benin | Present | | | | | Lutzeyer & Koch, 1992 | |
| Cameroon | Present | | | | | Hutchinson et al., 1963 | |
| Congo Democratic Republic | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Côte d'Ivoire | Restricted distribution | | | | | Hutchinson et al., 1963; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Ethiopia | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Gambia | Present | | | | | Terry, 1981 | |
| Ghana | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; Hutchinson et al., 1963; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Kenya | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Madagascar | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Malawi | Present | | | | | Banda & Morris, 1986 | |
| Mauritius | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Morocco | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Mozambique | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Nigeria | Restricted distribution | | | | | Hutchinson et al., 1963; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Senegal | Restricted distribution | | | | | Berhaut, 1967; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Seychelles | Present | | | | | Robertson, 1989 | |
| Sierra Leone | Present | | | | | Hutchinson et al., 1963 | |
| South Africa | Restricted distribution | | | | | Wells et al., 1986; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Sudan | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Swaziland | Present | | | | | Wells et al., 1986 | |
| Tanzania | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| -Zanzibar | Present | | | | | Ivens, 1989 | |
| Togo | Present | | | | | Pocanam, 2007 | |
| Uganda | Restricted distribution | | | | | Ivens, 1989; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Zambia | Present | | | | | Vernon, 1983 | |
| Zimbabwe | Restricted distribution | | | | | Drummond, 1984; EPPO, 2014 | |
NORTH AMERICA |
| Mexico | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| USA | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| -Florida | Present | | | | | Westbrooks & Eplee, 1988 | |
| -Hawaii | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; EPPO, 2014 | |
CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN |
| Costa Rica | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Cuba | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1997 | |
| Dominican Republic | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1997; EPPO, 2014 | |
| El Salvador | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1997 | |
| Guatemala | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Honduras | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1997; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Nicaragua | Present | | | | | Solis & de la Cruz, 1992 | |
| Puerto Rico | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1997; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Trinidad and Tobago | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1979; EPPO, 2014 | |
| United States Virgin Islands | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
SOUTH AMERICA |
| Argentina | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Brazil | Restricted distribution | | | | | Lorenzi, 1982; EPPO, 2014 | |
| -Goias | Present | | | | | Procópio et al., 2006 | |
| -Mato Grosso | Present | | | | | Lorenzi, 1982 | |
| -Minas Gerais | Present | | | | | Bacelar, 1994 | |
| -Parana | Present | | | | | Lorenzi, 1982 | |
| -Sao Paulo | Present | | | | | Lorenzi, 1982 | |
| Colombia | Restricted distribution | | | | | Holm et al., 1997; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Ecuador | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Venezuela | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
EUROPE |
| France | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Italy | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Portugal | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Russian Federation | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Spain | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
| Yugoslavia (former) | Present | | | | | Holm et al., 1979 | |
OCEANIA |
| Australia | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Fiji | Restricted distribution | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997; EPPO, 2014 | |
| French Polynesia | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| Guam | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| Kiribati | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| New Caledonia | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| New Zealand | Restricted distribution | | | | | EPPO, 2014 | |
| Papua New Guinea | Restricted distribution | | | | | Henty & Pritchard, 1975; EPPO, 2014 | |
| Samoa | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| Solomon Islands | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| Tonga | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| Tuvalu | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
| Vanuatu | Present | | | | | Waterhouse, 1997 | |
Habitat
Top of pageT. procumbens occurs in many environments but is particularly well adapted to coarse-textured soils in tropical regions (Holm et al., 1997). It is found at elevations from sea level to over 2000 m, often as a weed of roadsides, waste land, fallow land and crops.
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHolm et al. (1997) cite T. procumbens as a weed of 31 crops, however, this is almost certainly an underestimate. A wide range of crop types are infested, including cereals, fibres, legumes, pastures, tree crops and vegetables. Though not associated with waterlogged soils, it occurs in irrigated crops. Most crops have the potential to be infested with T. procumbens when grown within its habitat and geographical range.
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGermination of T. procumbens occurs over a prolonged period and in a variable pattern. In Nigeria, Marks and Nwachuku (1986) found that freshly harvested seeds required light for 100% germination but, after two months of burial in soil, half germinated in darkness. Ogbonnaya (1988) found the highest germination rate (82%) of T. procumbens for seeds on the soil surface under diffuse light. While seeds can germinate when buried at depths of up to 4 cm in the soil, only 6% of those at 1 cm actually emerged and became established (Pemadasa and Kangatharalingam, 1977). Seeds stored in soil for two years gave 7% germination in south Benin (Lutzeyer and Koch, 1992). The pappus on the achene aids water uptake from soil, promoting germination (Pemadasa and Kangatharalingam, 1977). The percentage germination of fresh seed in India was greatest at 30°C and at pH 6 to 8. Synchronous germination of high densities of seedlings results in intra-specific competition and a reduction in subsequent seedling establishment.
Dry weight, plant height and leaf area index of T. procumbens are reduced by shade (Shetty et al., 1982). In Nigeria, seedlings attain maximum increments in height and biomass after 12 weeks, after which the growth rate declines (Ogbonnaya, 1988). T. procumbens forms slender, wavy taproots with many lateral branches (Shetty and Maiti, 1978). The branches are more abundant near the soil surface. Lateral roots angle sharply downward and are important in water and nutrient uptake. T. procumbens is a C3 plant and is a very inefficient user of water; Datta (1959) reports a transpiration coefficient of 1402 compared with 430 for sorghum.
Flowering plants of T. procumbens are found year-round in Sri Lanka (Pemadasa, 1976) but shorter flowering periods are reported for West Africa (Le Bourgeois and Merlier, 1995). In East Africa, flowering occurs 35 to 55 days after emergence, and seeds ripen within 3 weeks of flowering (Popay and Ivens, 1982). T. procumbens is not apomictic and can be either cross- or self-pollinated (Holm et al., 1997). Insect pollinators include thrips, beetles, bees (Ananthakakrishnan et al., 1981) and butterflies (Balasubramanian, 1989). Single plants can produce 500 to 2500 seeds (Pancho, 1964). The pappus is relatively small in comparison to seed weight and is not likely to aid in widespread seed dispersal (Baker, 1965).
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSymptoms, host range and methods of transmission of Tridax mosaic virus, a mosaic virus disease of T. procumbens in India are described by Shamsher Singh and Verma (1979).
Impact
Top of pageT. procumbens has been recorded at densities as high as 340,000 plants/ha in cassava (Doll et al., 1977), and it is as a competitor with crops that this species has its most serious impact. However, though very common as a weed in East Africa, Ivens (1989) does not consider it to be a serious problem. In India, it can interfere with the harvesting of jute (Holm et al., 1997). Das and Pal (1970) have shown that T. procumbens has an allelopathic effect on rice. It is reported as a host to several crop pests, including root-knot nematodes in India (Upadhyay et al., 1977), an insect (Phalanta phalantha) which defoliates poplar trees in Nigeria (Akanbi, 1971), red spider mite (Tetranychus telarius [Tetranychus urticae]) in India (Choudhury and Mukherjee, 1971), Macrophomina phaseolina in India (Singh et al., 1990), sunflower yellow blotch umbravirus in Kenya (Theuri et al., 1987) and Aphis citricola, a vector of citrus cistreza closterovirus in India (Naidu, 1980). T. procumbens is also an alternate host to the parasitic weed Orobanche in India (Sen, 1981).
Uses
Top of pageT. procumbens can be used for wound healing (Udupa et al., 1991), staunching bleeding (Burkhill, 1985) and treatment of diarrhoea (Burkhill, 1985; Shashi Gupta et al., 1993), backache (Burkhill, 1985) and bronchial catarrh (Ambasta, 1986). Extracts of this weed are reported to inhibit the growth of Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. Root galling by Meloidogyne incognita is reduced by powdered leaves of T. terrestris mixed in soil (Sharma and Tiagi, 1989) and there is evidence from laboratory tests that juvenile stages of this nematode are killed by leaf extracts (Mani and Chitra, 1989). Essential oils extracted from T. procumbens are reported to have insecticidal activity against Musca domestica, Culex quinquefasciatus, Dysdercus similis and Supella spp. (Pathak and Dixit, 1988). Aqueous extracts inhibit aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus (Ghewande and Nagaraj, 1987) and a petroleum ether extract from flowers protects cowpea seeds from damage by the bruchid Callosobruchus maculatus (Alam and Anis, 1987). T. procumbens is sometimes used as green feed for poultry in Nigeria (Egunjobi, 1969).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
Environmental
Materials
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThough there are many related weeds in the Compositae (Asteraceae) family, T. terrestris has a distinct appearance making it unlikely to be mistaken for any other weed species.
Prevention and Control
Top of page
Cultural Control
T. procumbens does not have the great powers of regeneration possessed by some other perennial Compositae and can be easily controlled by cultivation and hand pulling (Adams and Baker, 1962; Ivens, 1989).
Chemical Control
Herbicides reported to give control of T. procumbens include ametryne, atrazine, 2,4-D and diuron (Terry, 1983), Avirosan (dimethametryn + piperophos) and oxadiazon in rice (Vernier, 1985), bromacil (Jayachandra and Menon, 1972), metobromuron + metolachlor in cowpea (Olifintoye and Adesiyun, 1989), MCPA and 2,4-D in sisal (Ivens, 1989) and oxyfluorfen in groundnut (Prasad et al., 1987).
References
Top of pageAdams C, Baker H, 1962. Weeds of cultivation and grazing lands. In: Wills J, ed. Agriculture and Land Use in Ghana. London, UK: Oxford Press.
Akanbi MO, 1971. The biology, ecology and control of Phalanta phalanta Drury (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), a defoliator of Populus spp. in Nigeria. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Nigeria, 3(1):19-26
Alam MM, Anis M, 1987. Ethno-medicinal uses of plants growing in the Bulandshahr district of northern India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 19(1):85-88
Ambasta SSP, ed., 1986. The Useful Plants of India. New Delhi, India: Publications and Information Directorate, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Ananthakakrishnan T, Varatharajan R, Gopinathan K, 1981. Pollination in Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. and Tridax procumbens L. (Compositae) by thrips (Thysanoptera: insects). Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, Part B, Biological Sciences, 47:159-165.
Bacelar M, 1994. Tridax procumbens L. - Asteraceae - a weed recently recorded in the state of Minas Gerais. Daphne, Revista do Herba^acute~rio PAMG da EPAMIG, 4(2):58-61; 21 ref.
Baker H, 1965. Characteristics and modes of origin of weeds. In: Baker H, Stebbins G, eds. The Genetics of Colonising Species. New York, USA: Academic Press, 147-169.
Balasubramanian MV, 1989. Studies on the ecology of butterfly pollination in south India. Annals of Entomology, 7(1):31-41
Banda EA, Morris B, 1986. Common Weeds of Malawi. Lilongwe, Malawi: The University of Malawi.
Barnes DE, Chan G, 1990. Common Weeds of Malaysia and their Control. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Ancom Berhad.
Berhaut J, 1967. Flore du Senegal. Dakar, Senegal: Editions Clairafrique.
Bhattacharyya G, Pandya SM, 1996. Distribution studies on exotic weeds of Saurashtra (India). Advances in Plant Sciences, 9:29-32.
Bourgeois Tle, Merlier H, 1995. ADVENTROP. Weeds of sudano-sahelian Africa. ADVENTROP. Les adventices d'Afriques soudano- sahe^acute~lienne., 637 pp.; 6 pp. of ref.
Burkhill HM, 1985. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. I. Families A-D. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens.
Choudhury A, Mukherjee A, 1971. Wild plants as alternate hosts of red spider mite, Tetranychus telarius L. (Tetranchidae: Acarina). Indian Journal of Entomology, 33:108-110.
Das T, Pal S, 1970. Effects of volatile substances of aromatic weeds on germination and subsequent growth of rice embryos. Bulletin of the Botanical Society of Bengal, 24:101-103.
Datta S, 1959. Weeds and weed control. Indian Agriculturalist, 3:26-36.
Department of Agronomy, 1968. Weeds found in cultivated land in Taiwan, Volume 2. Taipei, Taiwan: College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University.
Devi LG, Potty NN, Abraham CT, Thomas G, 1993. The weed flora in sugarcane fields of Palghat district. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 31(1):137-139
Doll J, Andersen P, Diaz R, 1977. An agro-economic survey of the weeds and weeding practices in cassava in Colombia. Weed Research, 17:153-160.
Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.
Egunjobi J, 1969. Some Common Weeds of Western Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: Bulletin of the Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Ghewande MP, Nagaraj G, 1987. Prevention of aflatoxin contamination through some commercial chemical products and plant extracts in groundnut. Mycotoxin Research, 3:19-24.
Henty EE, Pritchard GH, 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their Control. Lp, Papua New Guinea: Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bulletin No.7.
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Naidu R, 1980. Aphis citricola van der Goot - a new vector of citrus tristeza virus in India. Current Science, 49(17):668-669
Noda K, Teerawatsakul M, Prakongvongs C, Chaiwiratnukul L, 1985. Major Weeds in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Department of Agriculture.
Ogbonnaya CI, 1988. Aspects of the autecology of Tridax procumbens, a prevalent weed of croplands in southern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Weed Science, 1(2):83-89
Olifintoye JA, Adesiyun AA, 1989. Weed control in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) with sethoxydim and Galex. Nigerian Journal of Weed Science, 2(1-2):29-34
Oudhia P, 2001. Common rice weeds used for first aid by Chhattisgarh farmers. Agricultural Science Digest, 21(4):273-274.
Paliwal K, Ilangovan M, 1988. Ecophysiological study of some dominant weeds of semi-arid grazing lands of Madurai. VIIIe Colloque International sur la Biologie, l'Ecologie et la Systematique des Mauvaises Herbes Paris, France: ANPP, 1:229-236l.
Pancho J, 1964. Seed size and production capabilities of common weed species in rice fields of Philippines. Philippines Agriculturalist, 48:307-316.
Pathak AK, Dixit VK, 1988. Insecticidal and insect repellent activity of essential oils of Tridax procumbens and Cyathocline lyrata.. Fitoterapia, 59(3):211-214.
Pawar WS, Barkhede UP, 1991. Weed management in cotton. Journal of Soils and Crops, 1(2):189-190
Pemadasa M, Kangatharalingam N, 1977. Factors affecting germination of some Compositaes. Ceylon Journal of Agricultural Science, 12:157-168.
Pemadasa MA, 1976. Interference in populations of three weed species. Journal of Applied Ecology, 13(3):899-913
Pocanam Y, 2007. A new herbicide of pre-emergence of maize without atrazine in Togo: aclonifene 330 G/L/isoxaflutole 50 G/L. (Un nouvel herbicide de pre-levee du maïs sans atrazine au Togo: aclonifene 330 G/L/isoxaflutole 50 G/L.) In: 20ème Conférence du COLUMA. Journées Internationales sur la Lutte contre les Mauvaises Herbes, Dijon, France, 11-12 décembre, 2007. Paris, France: Association Nationale pour la Protection des Plantes (ANPP), 699-705.
Popay AI, Ivens GW, 1982. East Africa. In: Holzner W, Numata M, eds. Biology and Ecology of Weeds. The Hague, Netherlands: Dr. W. Junk Publishers, 345-372.
Prasad TVR, Narasimha N, Dwarakanath N, Krishnamurthy K, 1987. Efficacy of oxyfluorfen for weed control in irrigated groundnut. International Arachis Newsletter, No.2:9-11
Procópio SO, Menezes CCE, Pires FR, Barroso ALL, Cargnelutti Filho A, Rudovalho MC, Moraes RV, Silva MVV, Caetano JO, 2006. Efficacy of imazethapyr and chlorimuron-ethyl in pre-sowing applications on soybean crop. (Eficácia de imazethapyr e chlorimuron-ethyl em aplicações de pré-semeadura da cultura da soja.) Planta Daninha, 24(3):467-473. http://www.scielo.br/pd
Rahman AHMM, Alam MS, Khan SK, Ferdous Ahmed, Islam AKMR, Rahman MM, 2008. Taxonomic studies on the family Asteraceae (Compositae) of the Rajshahi division. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 4(2):134-140. http://www.insinet.net/rjabs/2008/134-140.pdf
Robertson SA, 1989. Flowering Plants of Seychelles. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens.
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Distribution Maps
Top of page
- = Present, no further details
- = Evidence of pathogen
- = Widespread
- = Last reported
- = Localised
- = Presence unconfirmed
- = Confined and subject to quarantine
- = See regional map for distribution within the country
- = Occasional or few reports