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Datasheet

Polygonum persicaria (redshank)

Index

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 15 May 2008
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Invasive Species
  • Pest
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Polygonum persicaria
  • Preferred Common Name
  • redshank
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Plantae
  •         Phylum: Spermatophyta
  •             Subphylum: Angiospermae
  •                 Class: Dicotyledonae
  • Summary of Invasiveness
    • P. persicaria can be very competitive with crop plants, particularly in moist areas, and has an ability to spread rapidly once introduced to an area. The economic impact of P. persicaria in agricultural production is sufficient for various government...

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Pictures

Top of page
PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
Upper part of plant with leaves and flowers.
TitleUpper part of plant
CaptionUpper part of plant with leaves and flowers.
CopyrightKurt G. Kissmann
Upper part of plant with leaves and flowers.
Upper part of plantUpper part of plant with leaves and flowers.Kurt G. Kissmann
Flowering shoot of P. persicaria.
TitleFlowering shoot
CaptionFlowering shoot of P. persicaria.
Copyright©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK
Flowering shoot of P. persicaria.
Flowering shootFlowering shoot of P. persicaria.©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK
Mature black seeds of P. persicaria.
TitleSeeds
CaptionMature black seeds of P. persicaria.
CopyrightKurt G. Kissmann
Mature black seeds of P. persicaria.
SeedsMature black seeds of P. persicaria.Kurt G. Kissmann

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

  • Polygonum persicaria L.

Preferred Common Name

  • redshank

Other Scientific Names

  • Persicaria dolichopoda (Ochi) Sasaki
  • Persicaria maculata (Raf.) S.F. Gray
  • Persicaria maculosa S.F. Gray
  • Persicaria mitis Delarbre
  • Persicaria persicaria (L.) Small
  • Persicaria ruderalis (Salisb.) C.F. Reed
  • Persicaria vulgaris Webb & Moq.
  • Polygonum dubium Stein
  • Polygonum fusiforme Greene
  • Polygonum minus auct. non Huds.
  • Polygonum puritanorum Fern.
  • Polygonum vulgaris Samp.

International Common Names

  • English: lady's thumb; ladysthumb
  • Spanish: persicaria manchada
  • French: persicaire douce; pied rouge
  • Portuguese: erva-pessegueira

Local Common Names

  • Brazil: persicaria-de-pe-vermelho
  • Germany: floh knöterich
  • Italy: persicaria
  • Japan: harutade
  • Netherlands: duizendknoop, kleine; perzikkruid
  • New Zealand: willow weed
  • Sweden: piloert, aaker-
  • USA: heart's-ease; heartweed; spotted ladysthumb

EPPO code

  • POLMI (Polygonum minus)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of pageP. persicaria can be very competitive with crop plants, particularly in moist areas, and has an ability to spread rapidly once introduced to an area. The economic impact of P. persicaria in agricultural production is sufficient for various governments to declare this weed as a noxious pest (Anon., 1996; Anon., 2003). The state of Minnesota in the USA has declared P. persicaria as a secondary noxious weed and several states have categorized it as invasive (USDA-NRCS, 2002).

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Plantae
  •         Phylum: Spermatophyta
  •             Subphylum: Angiospermae
  •                 Class: Dicotyledonae
  •                     Order: Polygonales
  •                         Family: Polygonaceae
  •                             Genus: Polygonum
  •                                 Species: Polygonum persicaria

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of pageP. persicaria is a summer annual, herbaceous, broadleaved (dicot) weed and is a member of the Polygonaceae, or smartweed family, also sometimes called the buckwheat, knotweed, or dock family. There are numerous varieties described by various authorities (e.g. Ekman and Knutson, 1994; Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2003; USDA-ARS, 2003). Several of these, such as var. minus, var. ruderale and var. vulgare appear to correspond to species now classified as accepted synonyms of P. persicaria. The taxonomical status of other varieties listed, var. angustiflorum Beckh., var. lapathiolium (L.) Meisn., var. opacum (Sam.) A.J. Li and var. vernicosa Cham & Schltdl. may correspond to other species and require confirmation. A form with white flowers rather than the usual deep pink, forma albiflora Millsp. has been described. Also, there are several separate authorities listed for P. persicaria (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2003). This all indicates widespread variation in the species. Many Polygonum species, including P. persicaria, are now placed by a number of authorities in the genus Persicaria, hence Stace (1991) uses the synonym Persicaria maculosa and Grierson and Long (1983) use Persicaria dolichopoda.

Description

Top of pageP. persicaria grows erect to spreading to 0.2-1.2 m tall and generally sprawls with age. Leaf blades lanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3-15 cm long, 0.5-3 cm wide, glabrous to sparsely strigose, usually puncticulate, especially beneath, acute to long-acuminate, cuneate at the base, subsessile or on petioles to 1 cm long; ocreae 5-15 mm long, fringed with bristles, glabrous to strigose. Racemes usually globose to cylindric, 0.5-2.5 cm long, 0.5-1 cm thick. The leaves of this species typically have a dark green splotch, which is often 'V'-shaped, in their centres. The stems are glabrous, branching at base, erect, herbaceous, typically reddish at nodes. P. persicaria has a distinctly fringed ocrea, distinguishing it from other Polygonum species (Uva et al., 1997). The fringes on the P. persicaria ocrea are short, less than half the length of the membraneous ocrea. Roots are typically a taproot with branches. Flowers light to deep pink; calyx 2.5-3 mm long, 5-lobed to near the middle; stamens 6, included; style branches 2 or 3. The flowers are present July-September in the northern hemisphere. Achenes (seeds) are black, shiny, two-sided, lenticular or some often trigonous, 2-2.5 mm long.

Plant Type

Top of pageAnnual
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Seed propagated

Distribution

Top of pageP. persicaria is thought to be native to Europe, but is quite common in many other temperate and sub-tropical countries around the world and at high elevation in the tropics. The eastern limits to its native range appear to be uncertain however. Although it is known as a European or Eurasian native, it is also stated as a native of China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003).

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

CountryDistributionLast ReportedOriginFirst ReportedInvasiveReferencesNotes

ASIA

AfghanistanPresentInvasiveHolm et al., 1991
BangladeshPresentIntroducedHolm et al., 1991
BhutanPresentGrierson & Long, 1983
ChinaRestricted distributionNativeFreedman, 1998; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003
-FujianPresentNativeFlora of China Editorial Committee, 2003
-GuangdongPresentNativeFlora of China Editorial Committee, 2003
-GuizhouPresentNativeFlora of China Editorial Committee, 2003
-SichuanPresentNativeFlora of China Editorial Committee, 2003
-ZhejiangPresentNativeFlora of China Editorial Committee, 2003
IndiaPresentSefaur & Mukherjee, 2010
-West BengalPresentSefaur & Mukherjee, 2010
IranPresentHolm et al., 1991
IraqPresentHolm et al., 1991
JapanPresentInvasiveHolm et al., 1991
NepalPresentHolm et al., 1991
PakistanPresentHolm et al., 1991
PhilippinesPresentInvasiveHolm et al., 1991
TurkeyPresentNativeHolm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003

AFRICA

EgyptPresentHolm et al., 1991
KenyaPresentIntroducedHolm et al., 1991
TunisiaPresentHolm et al., 1991
UgandaPresentIntroducedHolm et al., 1991

NORTH AMERICA

CanadaPresentIntroducedInvasiveHolm et al., 1991; Anon., 1996
-British ColumbiaPresentIntroduced
-ManitobaPresentIntroducedInvasiveAnon., 1996
-QuebecPresentBélair et al., 2007
MexicoPresentIntroducedHolm et al., 1991; New York Botanical Garden, 2003
USAPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-AlabamaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-AlaskaPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-ArizonaPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-ArkansasPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-CaliforniaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-ColoradoPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-ConnecticutPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-DelawarePresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-FloridaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-GeorgiaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-IdahoPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-IllinoisPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-IndianaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-IowaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-KansasPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-KentuckyPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-LouisianaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MainePresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MarylandPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MassachusettsPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MichiganPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002; Weed Science Society of America, 2003
-MinnesotaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MississippiPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MissouriPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-MontanaPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-NebraskaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-NevadaPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-New HampshirePresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-New JerseyPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-New MexicoPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-New YorkPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-North CarolinaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-North DakotaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-OhioPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-OklahomaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-OregonPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-PennsylvaniaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-Rhode IslandPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-South CarolinaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-South DakotaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-TennesseePresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-TexasPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-UtahPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-VermontPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-VirginiaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-WashingtonPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-West VirginiaPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-WisconsinPresentIntroducedInvasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002
-WyomingPresentIntroducedNot invasiveUSDA-NRCS, 2002

SOUTH AMERICA

ArgentinaPresentIntroducedInvasiveNew York Botanical Garden, 2003
BoliviaPresentIntroducedMissouri Botanical Garden, 2003
Brazil
-ParanaPresentIntroducedNew York Botanical Garden, 2003
-Rio Grande do SulPresentIntroducedNew York Botanical Garden, 2003
ChilePresentIntroducedInvasivePedreros et al., 2002; Holm et al., 1991
ColombiaPresentIntroducedHolm et al., 1991
EcuadorPresentIntroducedNew York Botanical Garden, 2003

EUROPE

AlbaniaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
AustriaPresentNativeInvasiveRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
BelarusPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
BelgiumPresentNativeInvasiveRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
BulgariaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
CroatiaPresentKristek et al., 2004
Czech RepublicPresentNativeInvasiveWeed Science Society of America, 2003; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
DenmarkPresentNativeInvasiveINRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
EstoniaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
Faroe IslandsPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
FinlandPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
FrancePresentNativeInvasiveINRA, 2001; Weed Science Society of America, 2003; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
-CorsicaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
GermanyPresentNativeInvasiveINRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
GreecePresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
HungaryPresentNativeInvasiveRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
IcelandPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
IrelandPresentNativeInvasiveSimmonds, 1946; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
ItalyPresentNativeInvasiveINRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
LatviaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
LithuaniaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
MoldovaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
NetherlandsPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
NorwayPresentNativeInvasiveRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
PolandPresentNativeInvasiveRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
PortugalPresentNativeInvasiveINRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
-AzoresPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
RomaniaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
Russian Federation
-Central RussiaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
-Northern RussiaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
-Southern RussiaPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
SerbiaPresentMarkovic et al., 2008
SloveniaPresentEler & Batic, 2002
SpainPresentNativeInvasiveINRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
-Balearic IslandsPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
SwedenPresentNativeInvasiveRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
SwitzerlandPresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
UKPresentNativeInvasiveSimmonds, 1946; INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
UkrainePresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)PresentNativeRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003

OCEANIA

AustraliaPresentIntroducedHolm et al., 1991
-QueenslandPresentIntroducedAdkins & Peters, 2001
New ZealandPresentIntroducedInvasiveHolm et al., 1991; Weed Science Society of America, 2003

History of Introduction and Spread

Top of pageSpread of P. persicaria from Europe to other parts of the world appears to have been prevalent in the 1800s. It is now particularly common in eastern areas of North America, while also present in every continent.

Risk of Introduction

Top of pageDue to the risks of both accidental and intentional introduction, either as a seed contaminant, via biotic or abiotic spread or from the importation of seed for ornamental planting, further spread of P. persicaria is likely. As a result, P. persicaria has been declared a noxious weed in parts of Canada (Anon., 1996) and the USA (USDA-NRCS, 2002).

Habitat

Top of pageP. persicaria grows best in moist to wet areas of waste ground, meadows, river banks, roadsides, railroads, and disturbed sites, including croplands and gardens. It is most prevalent near springs, shores, stream banks and ditches, especially irrigation ditches, where water is fresh. Plants often grow in wet moist soils, but tolerate periods of dryness. This species does not tolerate highly acidic soils (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003).

Habitat List

Top of page
CategoryHabitatPresenceStatus
Littoral
Coastal areasPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial-managed
Cultivated / agricultural landPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Disturbed areasPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Managed forests, plantations and orchardsPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Managed grasslands (grazing systems)Present, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Rail / roadsidesPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Urban / peri-urban areasPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural
Natural forestsPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
Natural grasslandsPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
RiverbanksPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)
WetlandsPresent, no further detailsHarmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of pageP. persicaria can be a serious weed of cultivated agricultural and horticultural crops. Holm et al. (1997) note that it is a weed of 35 crops including many unspecified vegetable and orchard crops.

Growth Stages

Top of pageFlowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

Top of pageGenetics

P. persicaria has been found to hybridize with pale smartweed (P. lapathifolium). Compared with P. persicaria, the hybrid plants have narrower flower spikes and flatter achenes (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003). Flora Europaea (Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh, 2003) lists a number of hybrids including P. persicaria though considering the array of varietal synonymity the exact status of these requires verification. However, it is certain that there is widespread variation in the morphology of this species.

Physiology and Phenology

Research has shown that P. persicaria has a great deal of plasticity in its traits (Sultan and Bazzaz, 1993). For example, in a resource-rich environment, this species reproduced much more vigorously, while in a low-light environment it doubled the amount of leaf tissue (Sultan, 1996). Plants of this terrestrial summer annual typically do not form close colonies, but grow as scattered individuals. Plants are killed in the autumn by the first hard frost. Foliage turns brown to reddish and does not persist through the cold season (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003).

Reproductive Biology

Propagation is by seed. Seeds fall near the parent plant, but often remain on the parent plant until scattered by animals or other disturbance. Once the seeds fall to the soil surface, they may be dispersed with water, animals, in soil movement, or with machinery. They may also survive crop harvest and become contaminants of crop seed. A persistent soil seed bank usually accumulates. Seeds are dormant when shed and require a cold, moist period to break dormancy. Length of initial seed dormancy varies widely on individual plants and between populations. Seeds normally germinate in the springtime, and those that do not germinate the first season enter secondary dormancy (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003). Research has shown that most seeds of P. persicaria easily emerge from most soil textures and from soil depths up to 50 mm (James et al., 2002). Seed longevity in the field is poorly documented. Under very rare conditions, fragmented stems can also regenerate into new plants (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003).

Environmental Requirements

Climatic requirements include reasonable soil moisture. As noted above, cold, moist conditions are required to break seed dormancy. Although this weed thrives under moist conditions for much of the season, it can tolerate moderate summer droughts. P. persicaria plants have been found to elevations of 1500 m in California, USA (California Department of Food and Agriculture, 2003) or 1800 m in China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003).

Associations

Although these plants are considered somewhat toxic, the seeds are frequently consumed by animals. Though rarely having a serious impact on P. persicaria, at least one virus disease (Arabis mosaic nepovirus) can utilize P. persicaria as a host, where symptoms are mosaics, mottling, chlorotic ringspots and sometimes necrosis. Generally these symptoms disappear soon after infection, but plants may remain stunted. This virus can be transmitted by nematodes or through infected seed.

Air Temperature

Top of page
ParameterLower limitUpper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)-20
Mean annual temperature (ºC)520
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)1330
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)-104

Rainfall

Top of page
ParameterLower limitUpper limitDescription
Dry season duration07number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall5002500mm; lower/upper limits

Soil Tolerances

Top of page

Soil drainage

  • free
  • impeded
  • seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

  • acid
  • alkaline
  • neutral

Soil texture

  • heavy
  • light
  • medium

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of pageP. persicaria is a host to at least one virus disease (Arabis mosaic nepovirus), though this rarely has a serious impact on the plant.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

P. persicaria is propagated almost entirely by seeds which are produced in large numbers. Dispersal over short distances (1-10 m) is generally by wind or animals. Dispersal over longer distances can occur with water, particularly floods (NASD, 2002).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Birds and other animals can consume and disseminate seeds.

Agricultural Practices

In agricultural areas, both cultivation and harvesting machinery can carry seeds from field to field.

Accidental Introduction

Crop seeds need to be cleaned well to ensure that this and other weed seeds are not disseminated via crop seeds and planted with future crops.

Intentional Introduction

P. persicaria seeds are sold for wildflower gardens. These sales are made through seed catalogues and over the internet and there exists the possibility of further introduction as a minor ornamental species.

Pathway Vectors

Top of page
VectorNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
Mail/postSold as wildflowerYes
Soil, sand, gravel etc.Rivers and floodsYes

Plant Trade

Top of page
Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transportPest stagesBorne internallyBorne externallyVisibility of pest or symptoms
Flowers, Inflorescences, Cones, CalyxseedsNo
Fruits (inc. pods)seedsNo
Growing medium accompanying plantsseedsNo
True seeds (inc. grain)seedsNo
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Rhizomes
Leaves
Roots
Seedlings, Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground), Shoots, Trunks, Branches
Wood

Impact Summary

Top of page
CategoryImpact
Animal/plant collectionsNone
Animal/plant productsNone
Biodiversity (generally)Negative
Crop productionNegative
Environment (generally)Negative
Fisheries / aquacultureNone
Forestry productionNegative
Human healthNone
Livestock productionNegative
Native faunaNone
Native floraNegative
Rare/protected speciesNone
TourismNone
Trade/international relationsNone
Transport/travelNone

Impact

Top of pageP. persicaria can be very competitive with crop plants, particularly in moist soils and as such can have significant economic impacts in the requirements for use of increased tillage and herbicides, though exact data on costs due to the presence of this species are not known. Holm et al. (1997) note that it is a weed of 35 crops in 50 countries, those outside Europe including Australia, Brazil, Canada, New Zealand and the USA, also noting allelopathic effects on flax potatoes.

Environmental Impact

Top of pageP. persicaria competes with natural vegetation, particularly in moist areas along ditches, streams, rivers, and marshes.

Impact: Biodiversity

Top of pageP. persicaria can compete strongly with other herbaceous vegetation in moist areas and as such can replace the natural vegetation and threaten biodiversity.

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page

Impact mechanisms

  • Competition - monopolizing resources
  • Pest and disease transmission

Impact outcomes

  • Negatively impacts agriculture
  • Reduced native biodiversity

Invasiveness

  • Has high reproductive potential
  • Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
  • Highly adaptable to different environments
  • Invasive in its native range
  • Proved invasive outside its native range

Likelihood of entry/control

  • Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
  • Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Top of pageDuring times of famine in China, P. persicaria leaves and stems have been consumed by humans (Freedman, 1998). In numerous countries, this weed is used as a decorative planting in flower gardens.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of pageP. persicaria has many similarities to P. pensylvanicum, but P. persicaria generally has a darkly pigmented mark on the leaf blade that is usually lacking on P. pensylvanicum (Uva et al., 1997). P. lapathifolium (= P. scabrum) is also similar but with green flowers and glandular dots on the under surface of upper leaves. P. cepitosum is similar but has a more rose-colored perianth and the bracts of the inflorescence have cilia which typically are longer than the flowers.

Prevention and Control

Top of pageCultural Control

Intensive agricultural cultivation that does not allow emerged P. persicaria plants to mature will manage populations over time. Perennial turf or forages with frequent mowing will also deplete this weed.

Mechanical Control

Tillage/cultivation is effective for control of P. persicaria seedlings. The same is true of hoeing in home gardens and similar areas that can be managed by hand. Repeated mowing which prevents seed production will reduce populations over time.

Chemical Control

Numerous herbicides are highly effective in controlling P. persicaria. However, in France from 1980, there were reports of biotypes of this weed resistant to Group C1/5 (photosystem II inhibitors) herbicides found in maize and other cropland. Research has shown that these particular biotypes are also resistant to atrazine and they may be cross-resistant to other Group C1/5 herbicides (Weed Science Society of America, 2003). Similar resistance to triazines has since been confirmed in the Czech Republic, New Zealand and the United States.

Biological Control

Although P. persicaria plants are susceptible to Arabis mosaic virus, no research has been undertaken on the development of biological control agents, whether viral or fungal. No arthropods known to attack this species specifically have been identified.

Integrated Control

In agricultural and horticultural crops, P. persicaria can be managed through a combination of cultural, mechanical and chemical measures.

References

Top of page

Adkins SW, Peters NCB, 2001. Smoke derived from burnt vegetation stimulates germination of arable weeds. Seed Science Research, 11(3):213-222; 30 ref.

Anon., 1996. Manitoba Regulation Noxious Weeds Regulation - MR 38-5/96. http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/regs/pdf/n110-035.96.pdf.

Anon., 2003. Quebec Statutes and Regulations. Noxious Weeds. Agricultural Abuses Act. http://www.canlii.org/qc/regu/crqc/20030530/r.q.a-2r.1/whole.html.

Bélair G, Dauphinais N, Benoit DL, Fournier Y, 2007. Reproduction of Pratylenchus penetrans on 24 common weeds in potato fields in Québec. Journal of Nematology, 39(4):321-326. http://palmm.fcla.edu/nematode/index.htm

Cranston R, Ralph D, Wikeem B, 2002. Field Guide to Noxious and Other Selected Weeds of British Columbia. Government of British Columbia. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries. http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/weedguid/weedguid.htm.

Ekman S, Knutsson T, 1994. Nomenclatural notes on Persicaria. Nordic Journal of Botany, 14(1):23-25

Eler K, Batic F, 2002. Phytocenological and agronomic classification of weed vegetation from intensively used fields of Kranjsko and Sor?ko polje. (Fitocenolo?ka in agronomska opredelitev plevelne vegetacije na intenzivno rabljenih njivah Kranjskega in Sor?kega polja.) In: Novi izzivi v poljedelstvu 2002. Zbornik simpozija, Ljubljana, Slovenia 5-6 decembra 2002. Ljubljana, Slovenia: Slovensko Agronomsko Drustvo (SAD), 368-372.

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/.

Freedman R, 1998. Famine Foods. Polygonaceae. USA: Purdue University. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/faminefoods/ff_families/POLYGONACEAE.html.

Grierson AJC, Long DG, 1983. Flora of Bhutan, Volume 1, Part 1. Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden.

Holm LG, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, 1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DC, 1991. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Malabar, Florida: Krieger.

INRA, 2001. Weed Science and Agronomy. HYPPA. Dijon, France: INRA. http://www.inra.fr/hyppa/hyppa-a/lamam_ah.htm.

James TK, Rahman A, Webster T, Waller J, 2002. Emergence of weeds as affected by vertical seed distribution in arable soils. New Zealand Plant Protection Volume 55, 2002. Proceedings of a conference, Centra Hotel, Rotorua, New Zealand, 13-15 August 2002, 213-217; 10 ref.

Kristek A, Kristek S, Antunovic M, 2004. Influence of fertilization and herbicides application on soil microflora and elements of sugar beet yield. (Utjecaj gnojidbe i primjene herbicida na biogenost tla i elemente prinosa ?ecerne repe.) Agriculture Scientific and Professional Review, 10(1):35-42.

Markovic M, Protic R, Protic N, 2008. Efficiency and selectivity of herbicides in maize (Zea mays L.). Romanian Agricultural Research, No.25:77-82.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. VAScular Tropicos database. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html.

NASD, 2002. Weed management after a flood - strategies for this year and next. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension.

New York Botanical Garden, 2003. Catalogue of Vascular Plant Species of Eastern Brazil. Polygonaceae. http://www.nybg.org/bsci/hcol/sebc/Polygonaceae.html.

Pedreros A, Gonzßlez MI, Guadamud C, Uragami U, 2002. Weed control during asparagus establishment year in a volcanic soil of Chile. Acta Horticulturae, 589:155-158; 10 ref.

Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003. Flora Europaea, Database of European Plants (ESFEDS). Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html.

Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2003. Electronic Plant Information Centre. Kew, Richmond, London, UK. http://epic.kew.org/index.htm.

Sefaur Rahaman, Mukherjee PK, 2010. Bio-efficacy of herbicides in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in different tillage systems under terai agro-ecological region of West Bengal. Environment and Ecology, 28(1):1-5.

Simmonds NW, 1946. Biological flora of the British Isles. Polygonum L. em. Gaertn. Journal of Ecology, 33:117-143.

Stace C, 1991. New Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Sultan SE, 1996. Phenotypic plasticity for offspring traits in Polygonum persicaria. Ecology, 77(6):1791-1807; 96 ref.

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Uva RH, Neal JC, DiTomaso JM, 1997. Weeds of the Northeast. Ithaca, USA: Cornell University Press.

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Distribution Maps

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Distribution map Afghanistan: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Albania: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Argentina: Present, introduced, invasive New York Botanical Garden, 2003Austria: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Australia: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Australia See regional map for distribution within the countryBangladesh: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Belgium: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Bulgaria: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Bolivia: Present, introduced Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003Brazil See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil See regional map for distribution within the countryBhutan: Present Grierson & Long, 1983Belarus: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Canada: Present, introduced, invasive Holm et al., 1991; Anon., 1996Canada See regional map for distribution within the countryCanada See regional map for distribution within the countryCanada See regional map for distribution within the countrySwitzerland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Chile: Present, introduced, invasive Pedreros et al., 2002; Holm et al., 1991China: Restricted distribution, native Freedman, 1998; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003China: Restricted distribution, native Freedman, 1998; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003China See regional map for distribution within the countryChina See regional map for distribution within the countryChina See regional map for distribution within the countryChina See regional map for distribution within the countryChina See regional map for distribution within the countryColombia: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Colombia: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Czech Republic: Present, native, invasive Weed Science Society of America, 2003; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Germany: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Denmark: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ecuador: Present, introduced New York Botanical Garden, 2003Estonia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Egypt: Present Holm et al., 1991Spain: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Spain: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Spain See regional map for distribution within the countryFinland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Faroe Islands: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003France: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Weed Science Society of America, 2003; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003France See regional map for distribution within the countryUK: Present, native, invasive Simmonds, 1946; INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Greece: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Greece: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Croatia: Present Kristek et al., 2004Hungary: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ireland: Present, native, invasive Simmonds, 1946; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003India: Present Sefaur & Mukherjee, 2010India See regional map for distribution within the countryIraq: Present Holm et al., 1991Iraq: Present Holm et al., 1991Iraq: Present Holm et al., 1991Iran: Present Holm et al., 1991Iran: Present Holm et al., 1991Iran: Present Holm et al., 1991Iceland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Iceland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Italy: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Japan: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Kenya: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Lithuania: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Latvia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Moldova: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Mexico: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991; New York Botanical Garden, 2003Mexico: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991; New York Botanical Garden, 2003Netherlands: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Norway: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Nepal: Present Holm et al., 1991New Zealand: Present, introduced, invasive Holm et al., 1991; Weed Science Society of America, 2003Philippines: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Philippines: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Pakistan: Present Holm et al., 1991Poland: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Portugal: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Portugal See regional map for distribution within the countryRomania: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Serbia: Present Markovic et al., 2008Russian Federation See regional map for distribution within the countryRussian Federation See regional map for distribution within the countryRussian Federation See regional map for distribution within the countrySweden: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Slovenia: Present Eler & Batic, 2002Tunisia: Present Holm et al., 1991Tunisia: Present Holm et al., 1991Turkey: Present, native Holm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Turkey: Present, native Holm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Turkey: Present, native Holm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ukraine: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ukraine: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Uganda: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991USA: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002USA: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002USA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA See regional map for distribution within the countryYugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
  • = Present, no further details
  • = Evidence of pathogen
  • = Widespread
  • = Last reported
  • = Localised
  • = Presence unconfirmed
  • = Confined and subject to quarantine
  • = See regional map for distribution within the country
  • = Occasional or few reports
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Distribution map (asia) Afghanistan: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Bangladesh: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Bhutan: Present Grierson & Long, 1983China: Restricted distribution, native Freedman, 1998; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003Fujian: Present, native Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003Guangdong: Present, native Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003Guizhou: Present, native Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003Sichuan: Present, native Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003Zhejiang: Present, native Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003India: Present Sefaur & Mukherjee, 2010West Bengal: Present Sefaur & Mukherjee, 2010Iraq: Present Holm et al., 1991Iran: Present Holm et al., 1991Japan: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Nepal: Present Holm et al., 1991Philippines: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991Pakistan: Present Holm et al., 1991Turkey: Present, native Holm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ukraine: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
Distribution map (europe) Albania: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Austria: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Belgium: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Bulgaria: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Belarus: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Switzerland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Czech Republic: Present, native, invasive Weed Science Society of America, 2003; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Germany: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Denmark: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Estonia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Spain: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Balearic Islands: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Finland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Faroe Islands: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003France: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Weed Science Society of America, 2003; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Corsica: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003UK: Present, native, invasive Simmonds, 1946; INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Greece: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Croatia: Present Kristek et al., 2004Hungary: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ireland: Present, native, invasive Simmonds, 1946; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Iraq: Present Holm et al., 1991Iran: Present Holm et al., 1991Iceland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Italy: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Lithuania: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Latvia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Moldova: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Netherlands: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Norway: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Poland: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Portugal: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Azores: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Romania: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Serbia: Present Markovic et al., 2008Central Russia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Northern Russia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Southern Russia: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Sweden: Present, native, invasive Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Slovenia: Present Eler & Batic, 2002Tunisia: Present Holm et al., 1991Turkey: Present, native Holm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Ukraine: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003
Distribution map (africa) Egypt: Present Holm et al., 1991Spain: Present, native, invasive INRA, 2001; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Greece: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Iraq: Present Holm et al., 1991Iran: Present Holm et al., 1991Kenya: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Tunisia: Present Holm et al., 1991Turkey: Present, native Holm et al., 1991; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Uganda: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991
Distribution map (north america) Canada: Present, introduced, invasive Holm et al., 1991; Anon., 1996British Columbia: Present, introducedManitoba: Present, introduced, invasive Anon., 1996Quebec: Present Bélair et al., 2007Iceland: Present, native Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003Mexico: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991; New York Botanical Garden, 2003USA: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Alaska: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Alabama: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Arkansas: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Arizona: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002California: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Colorado: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Connecticut: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Delaware: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Florida: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Georgia: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Iowa: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Idaho: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Illinois: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Indiana: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Kansas: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Kentucky: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Louisiana: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Massachusetts: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Maryland: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Maine: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Michigan: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002; Weed Science Society of America, 2003Minnesota: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Missouri: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Mississippi: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Montana: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002North Carolina: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002North Dakota: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Nebraska: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002New Hampshire: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002New Jersey: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002New Mexico: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Nevada: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002New York: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Ohio: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Oklahoma: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Oregon: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Pennsylvania: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Rhode Island: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002South Carolina: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002South Dakota: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Tennessee: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Texas: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Utah: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Virginia: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Vermont: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Washington: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Wisconsin: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002West Virginia: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Wyoming: Present, introduced, not invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002
Distribution map (central america) Colombia: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Mexico: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991; New York Botanical Garden, 2003USA: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002Florida: Present, introduced, invasive USDA-NRCS, 2002
Distribution map (south america) Argentina: Present, introduced, invasive New York Botanical Garden, 2003Bolivia: Present, introduced Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003Parana: Present, introduced New York Botanical Garden, 2003Rio Grande do Sul: Present, introduced New York Botanical Garden, 2003Chile: Present, introduced, invasive Pedreros et al., 2002; Holm et al., 1991Colombia: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Ecuador: Present, introduced New York Botanical Garden, 2003
Distribution map (pacific) Australia: Present, introduced Holm et al., 1991Queensland: Present, introduced Adkins & Peters, 2001China: Restricted distribution, native Freedman, 1998; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2003New Zealand: Present, introduced, invasive Holm et al., 1991; Weed Science Society of America, 2003Philippines: Present, invasive Holm et al., 1991

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