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Datasheet

Olpidium brassicae (lettuce big vein)

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 15 December 2015
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Pest
  • Vector of Plant Pest
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Olpidium brassicae
  • Preferred Common Name
  • lettuce big vein
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Fungi
  •         Phylum: Chytridiomycota
  •             Class: Chytridiomycetes
  •                 Order: Spizellomycetales
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    Compendia
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Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Olpidium brassicae (Woronin) P.A. Dang.

Preferred Common Name

  • lettuce big vein

Other Scientific Names

  • Asterocystis radicis De Wild.
  • Chytridium brassicae Woronin
  • Olpidiaster radicis (De Wild.) Pascher
  • Olpidium borzii De Wild.
  • Olpidium radicicola De Wild.
  • Pleotrachelus brassicae (Woronin) Sahtiy.

International Common Names

  • English: seedling blight: tobacco; seedling disease: cabbage
  • Spanish: enfermedad de nasciencia
  • French: brulure du lin; maladie de la brulure du lin; maladie des grosses nervures de la laitue; necrose des radicelles des cereales

Local Common Names

  • Germany: Auflaufkrankheit: Kohl; Gelbsucht: Tabak; Halsbrand: Kohl; Schwarzbeinigkeit: Kohl; Wurzelbrand: Kohl

EPPO code

  • OLPIBR (Olpidium brassicae)

Taxonomic Tree

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  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Fungi
  •         Phylum: Chytridiomycota
  •             Class: Chytridiomycetes
  •                 Order: Spizellomycetales
  •                     Family: Olpidiaceae
  •                         Genus: Olpidium
  •                             Species: Olpidium brassicae

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

CountryDistributionLast ReportedOriginFirst ReportedInvasiveReferencesNotes

ASIA

IndiaPresentArdey & Mukerji, 1986; Singh & Pavagi, 1975
-Andhra PradeshPresentSubrahmanyam & McDonald, 1980
-GujaratPresentSubrahmanyam & McDonald, 1980
-Indian PunjabPresentSubrahmanyam & McDonald, 1980
JapanPresentMorikawa & Taga, 2004
TurkeyPresentDemirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994

AFRICA

South AfricaPresentMorris & Knox-Davies, 1977

NORTH AMERICA

Canada
-AlbertaPresentTewari & Bains, 1983
-OntarioPresentBarr & Kemp, 1975; Kemp & Barr, 1978
-QuebecPresentBarr & Kemp, 1975
USA
-CaliforniaPresentCampbell & Lot, 1996
-FloridaPresentFalk & Guzman, 1984

SOUTH AMERICA

BrazilPresentLin, 1979
ChilePresentRosales et al., 2004
ColombiaPresentPineda-Lopez & Martinez-Lopez, 1977

EUROPE

BelgiumPresentVerhoyen et al., 1985
Czechoslovakia (former)PresentChod et al., 1976; Mali & Bojnansky, 1979
DenmarkPresentLange, 1973; Lange, 1976
FinlandPresentBremer & Lahdenpera, 1980
GermanyPresentBedlan, 1986
GreecePresentTjavella-Klonari et al., 1991
ItalyPresentVovlas et al., 1973; Diana & Piccirillo, 1994; Ragozzino et al., 1971
NetherlandsPresentRast, 1988; Hakkart et al., 1975; Witte, 1981
NorwayPresentVare et al., 1992
Russian FederationPresentBojnansky et al., 1974; Medvedskaya, 1981
SpainPresentIzquierde-Tamayo, 1973
SwedenPresentGripwall, 1986; Ryden & Erikssen, 1978
UKPresentThomas, 1984

OCEANIA

AustraliaPresentLatham & Jones, 2004
-TasmaniaPresentArcher et al., 2000
-Western AustraliaPresentArcher et al., 2000
New ZealandPresentThomas & Fry, 1972; Thomas, 1973

Host plants/Plants Affected

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Plant nameFamilyContext
Agrostis (bentgrasses)PoaceaeHabitat/association
Alcea rosea (Hollyhock)MalvaceaeHabitat/association
Allium cepa (onion)LiliaceaeOther
Anemone (windflower)RanunculaceaeOther
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut)FabaceaeMain
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)ChenopodiaceaeMain
Brassica oleracea (cabbages, cauliflowers)BrassicaceaeMain
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)SolanaceaeMain
Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle)ApocynaceaeHabitat/association
Chenopodium giganteum (large lambsquarters)ChenopodiaceaeHabitat/association
Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa)ChenopodiaceaeOther
Citrullus lanatus (watermelon)CucurbitaceaeHabitat/association
Cucumis sativus (cucumber)CucurbitaceaeMain
Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus (globe artichoke)AsteraceaeHabitat/association
Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)SolanaceaeHabitat/association
Daucus carota (carrot)ApiaceaeMain
Dianthus barbatus (sweet williams)CaryophyllaceaeOther
Euonymus europaeusCelastraceaeOther
Fragaria (strawberry)RosaceaeOther
Glycine max (soyabean)FabaceaeOther
Gomphrena globosa (Globe amaranth)AmaranthaceaeHabitat/association
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton)MalvaceaeHabitat/association
Gypsophila paniculata (baby’s breath)CaryophyllaceaeOther
Hibiscus syriacus (shrubby althaea)MalvaceaeHabitat/association
Lactuca sativa (lettuce)AsteraceaeMain
Linum (flax)LinaceaeHabitat/association
Matthiola incana (stock)BrassicaceaeHabitat/association
Nicotiana alata (sweet-scented tobacco)SolanaceaeHabitat/association
Nicotiana rustica (wild tobacco)SolanaceaeHabitat/association
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)SolanaceaeMain
Nicotiana velutinaSolanaceaeHabitat/association
Petunia hybridaSolanaceaeOther
Phaseolus lunatus (lima bean)FabaceaeHabitat/association
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)FabaceaeOther
Ricinus communis (castor bean)EuphorbiaceaeHabitat/association
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)SolanaceaeMain
Solanum melongena (aubergine)SolanaceaeHabitat/association
Solanum tuberosum (potato)SolanaceaeHabitat/association
Spinacia oleracea (spinach)ChenopodiaceaeOther
Tetragonia tetragonioides (New Zealand spinach)AizoaceaeHabitat/association
Trifolium (clovers)FabaceaeOther
Triticum (wheat)PoaceaeOther
Tulipa (tulip)LiliaceaeOther
Veronica (Speedwell)ScrophulariaceaeHabitat/association
Vicia benghalensis (purple vetch)FabaceaeHabitat/association
Vigna radiata (mung bean)FabaceaeOther
Vigna unguiculata (cowpea)FabaceaeHabitat/association
Zinnia elegans (zinnia)AsteraceaeHabitat/association

Growth Stages

Top of pagePre-emergence, Seedling stage

List of Symptoms

Top of page
SignLife StagesType

Leaves

abnormal colours

Whole plant

damping off
plant dead; dieback

Plant Trade

Top of page
Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transportPest stagesBorne internallyBorne externallyVisibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Rhizomeshyphae; sporesYesPest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Growing medium accompanying plantssporesNoYesPest or symptoms usually invisible
Rootshyphae; sporesYesPest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers, Inflorescences, Cones, Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Seedlings, Micropropagated plants
Stems (above ground), Shoots, Trunks, Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

References

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Archer C, Wilson C, Gibson L, 2000. Improving lettuce quality through reduction in losses due to soil borne diseases. In: Australian Lettuce Industry Conference, Hay, New South Wales, Australia, 6-8 June, 2000. Orange, Australia: Library, NSW Agriculture, 80-85.

Ardey J, Mukerji KG, 1986. Fungi associated with the roots of herbaceous plants. Current Science, India, 55(18):934-935

Barr DJS, 1988. Zoosporic plant parasites as fungal vectors of viruses: taxonomy and life cycles of the species involved. In: Cooper JI, Asher MJC, eds. Developments in Applied Biology 2, 1988, Viruses with Fungal Vectors. Wellesbourne, UK: Association of Applied Biologists, 123-137.

Barr DJS, Kemp WG, 1975. Olpidium brassicae, tobacco necrosis virus, and Pythium spp. in relation to rusty root of carrots in Ontario and Quebec. Canadian Plant Disease Survey, 55(2):77-82

Bedlan G, 1986. Seedling diseases. Pflanzenschutz, No. 1:13-14; [3 fig.].

Bojnansky V, Subikova V, Mali VR, 1974. New host plant of tobacco necrosis virus and its vector. Pol'nohospodarstvo, 20(6/7):429-435

Bollen GJ, Volker D, Bertoldi M de, Sequi P, Lemmes B, Papi T, 1996. The Science of Composting. Part 1. Glasgow, UK: Blackie Academic & Professional, 233-246.

Bos L, Huijberts N, 1990. Screening for resistance to big-vein disease of lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Crop Protection, 9(6):446-452

Bos L, Huijberts N, 1996. Lettuce ring necrosis, caused by a chytrid-borne agent distinct from lettuce big-vein 'virus'. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 102(9):867-873; 22 ref.

Bremer K, Lahdenpera M-L, 1980. A disease of out-door cucumbers caused by the tobacco necrosis virus in Finland. Annales Agriculturae Fenniae, 19(1):5-8

Campbell RN, 1996. Fungal transmission of plant viruses. Annual Review of Plant Pathology, 34:87-108.

Campbell RN, Lot H, 1996. Lettuce ring necrosis, a viruslike disease of lettuce: evidence for transmission by Olpidium brassicae. Plant Disease, 80(6):611-615; 20 ref.

Campbell RN, Sim ST, 1994. Host specificity and nomenclature of Olpidium bornovanus (=Olpidium radicale) and comparisons to Olpidium brassicae. Canadian Journal of Botany, 72(8):1136-1143

Chod J, Polak J, Kudela V, Jokes M, 1976. Finding of lettuce big vein virus in Czechoslovakia. Biologia Plantarum, 18(1):63-66

D÷ken MT, Demirci E, Acikg÷z S, 1994. Morphology of Olpidium brassicae (Wor.) Dang. and its transmission of big-vein virus to lettuce. Journal of Turkish Phytopathology, 23(3):133-142; 17 ref.

Demirci E, Acikgoz S, Dohen MT, 1995. Relations of some weed species with lettuce big-vein virus in Ereurum-Turkiye. Journal of Turkish Phytopathology, 24(3):135-137.

Diana G, Piccirillo P, 1994. Adversities of the tobacco crop: fungi. Informatore Fitopatologico, 44(1):7-16; 16 ref.

Dorst HJM Van, Peters D, 1988. Experiences with freesia leaf necrosis virus and its presumed vector, Olpidium brassicae. In: Cooper JI, Asher MJC, eds. 1988 Viruses with Fungal Vectors. Wellesbourne, UK : Assoc. Appl. Biol.

Falk BW, Guzman VL, 1984. First report of lettuce big vein in Florida. Plant Disease, 68(10):918

Gamliel A, Hadar E, Katan J, 1993. Improvement of growth and yield of Gypsophila paniculata by solarization or fumigation of soil or container medium in continuous cropping systems. Plant Disease, 77(9):933-938

Gharbi S, Meunier S, Verhoyen M, 1990. A new method for determining the efficacy of products and fungicides for controlling Olpidium brassicae and transmission of viruses in nutrient film culture solution. Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Rijksuniversiteit Gent, 55(3a):1073-1083

Gharbi S, Verhoyen M, 1993. Sterilization by UV irradiation of nutrient solutions with a view to avoiding viral infections transmitted by O. brassicae in hydroponic culture of lettuce. Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 58(3a):1113-1124

Gharbi S, Verhoyen M, 1994. Effect of temperature and pH on Olpidium brassicae. Mededelingen - Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 59(3a):819-833

Gokpinar D, Eppler A, Schlosser E, 1988. Differentiation of strains of tobacco necrosis virus in sugarbeet. Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Rijksuniversiteit Gent, 53(2a):515-520

Gripwall E, 1986. Incidence of lettuce big vein in Sweden. Vaxtskyddsnotiser, 50(4-5):133-135, 141

Hakkart FA, Rattink H, Nederpel L, Beuzenberg MP, Dorst HJM, Van, 1975. Annual Report 1974 Research Station for Flower Diseases in the Netherlands at Aalsmeer.

Hiruki C, 1967. Host specificity in transmission of tobacco stunt virus by Olpidium brassicae. Virology, 33:131-136.

Hiruki C, 1987. Recovery and identification of tobacco stunt virus from air-dried resting spores of Olpidium brassicae. Plant Pathology, 36(2):224-228

Izquierdo Tamayo A, 1973. The phycomycete Olpidium brassicae (Woronin) Dangeard, its attack on tobacco seed-beds and its role as a virus vector. Anales del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, Proteccion Vegetal, No. 3:107-129

Kemp WG, Barr DJS, 1978. Natural occurrence of tobacco necrosis virus in a rusty-root disease complex of Daucus carota in Ontario. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift, 91(3):203-217

Lange L, 1973. [Tulip] infection by Queen Augusta disease (tobacco necrosis virus = TNV). Ugeskrift for Agronomer og Hortonomer, 2(28):493-494

Lange L, 1976. Augusta disease in tulips, Field experiments with tobacco necrosis virus (TNV) and its vector Olpidium brassicae. Tidsskrift for Planteavl, 80(2):153-169

Latham LJ, Jones RAC, 2004. Deploying partially resistant genotypes and plastic mulch on the soil surface to suppress spread of lettuce big-vein disease in lettuce. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 55(2):131-138.

Lin MT, 1979. Occurrence and host range of Olpidium brassicae in Central Brazil. Plant Disease Reporter, 63(1):10-12

Mali VR, Bojnansky V, 1979. Occurrence of Olpidium brassicae (Wor.) Dang. on Euonymus europpa L. in Czechoslovakia. Biologia, Czechoslovakia, 34(1):47-54

Medvedskaya IG, 1981. Virus diseases of glasshouse cucumber. Zashchita Rastenii, 5:44-45

Morikawa T, Taga Y, 2004. Detection of Olpidium brassicae by a baiting plant method from field soils in Japan, and their transmissibility of tulip mild mottle mosaic virus. Soil Microorganisms, 58(1):43-52.

Morris MJ, Knox-Davies PS, 1977. Olpidium brassicae reported in South Africa. Phytophylactica, 9(3):71-72

Nott L, Bambridge J, Walsh JA, 2003. Development of diagnostics for the detection and quantification of Olpidium brassicae. Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium of the International Working Group on Plant Viruses with Fungal Vectors, Institute of Plant Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland, 22-25 July, 2002 [Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium of the International Working Group on Plant Viruses with Fungal Vectors, Institute of Plant Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland, 22-25 July, 2002.]:29-30.

Pineda-Lopez B, Martinez-Lopez G, 1977. Observaciones preliminares sobre la presencia de Olpidium brassicae (Wor.) Dang. y su posible asociacion con el "lettuce big-vein agent" en Colombia. Fitopatologia, 12(1):20-23.

Ragozzino A, Caia R, Xafis C, 1971. Pathogenic lettuce viruses in Campania. Note I. Rivista della Ortoflorofrutticoltura Italiana, 55(4):356-376

Rast ATB, 1988. Occurrence of pepper yellow vein in the Netherlands. Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology, 94(6):311-313

Rast ATB, 1993. Transmission of the pepper yellow vein agent by pepper and lettuce isolates of Olpidium brassicae. Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Universiteit Gent, 58(3a):1093-1095

Rosales IM, Sepúlveda P, Bruna A, 2004. First report of lettuce big-vein virus and Mirafiori lettuce virus in Chile. Plant Disease, 88(11):1286. http://www.apsnet.org

Ryden K, Eriksson B, 1978. Soil-borne viruses and their vectors in Swedish plant nurseries. Vaxtskyddsrapporter, Tradgard 3:50 pp.

Ryder EJ, Robinson BJ, 1991. 'Pacific' lettuce. HortScience, 26(4):437-438; 7 ref.

Singh SL, Pavgi MS, 1975. Occurrence of Olpidium brassicae in India. Current Science, 44(3):89-91

Subrahmanyam P, McDonald D, 1980. Occurrence of Olpidium brassicae on groundnut. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 75(3):506-509

Tewari JP, Bains P, 1983. Fungi associated with the roots of clover in Alberta. 1. Olpidium brassicae and Ligniera sp. Canadian Plant Disease Survey, 63(2):35-37

Thomas BJ, 1984. Occurrence and epidemiology of the cucumber necrosis strain of tobacco necrosis virus in cucumber crops. Report of the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute for 1982; 117-123. Littlehampton, West Sussex, UK.

Thomas W, 1973. A necrotic disease of glasshouse beans caused by bean stipple streak virus. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 16(1):150-154

Thomas W, Fry PR, 1972. Cucumber systemic necrosis caused by a strain of tobacco necrosis virus. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 15(4):857-866

Tjavella-Klonari K, Manousopoulos J, Katis N, Tomlinson JA, Clay CM, 1991. Occurrence of lettuce big vein disease in Greece. Acta Horticulturae, No. 287:435-441; 8 ref.

Vanachter A, Vanachter A, 1995. Development of Olpidium and Pythium in the nutrient solutions of NFT grown lettuce, and possible control methods. Fourth International Symposium on Soil and Substrate Infestation and Disinfestation, Leuven, Belgium, 6-12 Sepetember, 1993. Acta Horticulturae, 382:187-196.

Vare H, Vestberg M, Eurola S, 1992. Mycorrhiza and root-associated fungi in Spitsbergen. Mycorrhiza, 1(3):93-104

Verhoyen M, Legrand G, Meunier S, 1985. Investigations of the aetiology of a necrotic ringspot of lettuce. Mededelingen van de Faculteit Landbouwwetenschappen Rijksuniversiteit Gent, 50(3b):1295-1300

Vovlas N, Avgelis A, D'Urso M, 1973. Nematodes and viruses, causes of serious damage in anemone cultivation in southern Italy. Informatore Fitopatologico, 23(8):19-22

Walkey DGA, Bolland CJ, Miller A, Walsh JA, Tomlinson JA, Pink DAC, Thomas CJR, Stanghellini ME, 1986. Virus diseases of lettuce. 36th Annual Report for 1985, National Vegetable Research Station Wellesbourne, Warwick, UK; National Vegetable Research Station, 54-56

White JG, 1980. Control of lettuce big-vein disease by soil sterilisation. Plant Pathology, 29(3):124-130

White JG, 1983. The use of methyl bromide and carbendazim for the control of lettuce big-vein disease. Plant Pathology, 32(2):151-157

Witte M de, 1981. A new virus in cucumbers on rockwool. Melon necrosis virus. Groenten en Fruit, 36(50):48-49.

Distribution Maps

Top of page
Distribution map Australia: Present
Latham & Jones, 2004Australia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryBelgium: Present
Verhoyen et al., 1985Brazil: Present
Lin, 1979Canada
See regional map for distribution within the countryCanada
See regional map for distribution within the countryCanada
See regional map for distribution within the countryChile: Present
Rosales et al., 2004Colombia: PresentColombia: PresentCzechoslovakia (former): Present
Chod et al., 1976; Mali & Bojnansky, 1979Germany: Present
Bedlan, 1986Denmark: Present
Lange, 1973; Lange, 1976Spain: PresentSpain: PresentFinland: Present
Bremer & Lahdenpera, 1980UK: Present
Thomas, 1984Greece: PresentGreece: PresentIndia: Present
Ardey & Mukerji, 1986India
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryItaly: Present
Vovlas et al., 1973; Diana & Piccirillo, 1994Japan: Present
Morikawa & Taga, 2004Netherlands: Present
Rast, 1988; Hakkart et al., 1975; Witte, 1981Norway: Present
Vare et al., 1992New Zealand: Present
Thomas & Fry, 1972; Thomas, 1973Russian Federation: Present
Bojnansky et al., 1974; Medvedskaya, 1981Russian Federation: Present
Bojnansky et al., 1974; Medvedskaya, 1981Sweden: Present
Gripwall, 1986Turkey: Present
Demirci et al., 1995; Demirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994Turkey: Present
Demirci et al., 1995; Demirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994Turkey: Present
Demirci et al., 1995; Demirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994USA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countrySouth Africa: Present
Morris & Knox-Davies, 1977
  • = Present, no further details
  • = Evidence of pathogen
  • = Widespread
  • = Last reported
  • = Localised
  • = Presence unconfirmed
  • = Confined and subject to quarantine
  • = See regional map for distribution within the country
  • = Occasional or few reports
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Distribution map (asia) India: Present
Ardey & Mukerji, 1986Andhra Pradesh: Present
Subrahmanyam & McDonald, 1980Gujarat: Present
Subrahmanyam & McDonald, 1980Indian Punjab: Present
Subrahmanyam & McDonald, 1980Japan: Present
Morikawa & Taga, 2004Russian Federation: Present
Bojnansky et al., 1974; Medvedskaya, 1981Turkey: Present
Demirci et al., 1995; Demirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994
Distribution map (europe) Belgium: Present
Verhoyen et al., 1985Czechoslovakia (former): Present
Chod et al., 1976; Mali & Bojnansky, 1979Germany: Present
Bedlan, 1986Denmark: Present
Lange, 1973; Lange, 1976Spain: PresentFinland: Present
Bremer & Lahdenpera, 1980UK: Present
Thomas, 1984Greece: PresentItaly: Present
Vovlas et al., 1973; Diana & Piccirillo, 1994Netherlands: Present
Rast, 1988; Hakkart et al., 1975; Witte, 1981Norway: Present
Vare et al., 1992Russian Federation: Present
Bojnansky et al., 1974; Medvedskaya, 1981Sweden: Present
Gripwall, 1986Turkey: Present
Demirci et al., 1995; Demirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994
Distribution map (africa) Spain: PresentGreece: PresentTurkey: Present
Demirci et al., 1995; Demirci et al., 1995; Doken et al., 1994South Africa: Present
Morris & Knox-Davies, 1977
Distribution map (north america) Alberta: Present
Tewari & Bains, 1983Ontario: Present
Barr & Kemp, 1975; Kemp & Barr, 1978Quebec: Present
Barr & Kemp, 1975California: PresentFlorida: Present
Falk & Guzman, 1984
Distribution map (central america) Colombia: PresentFlorida: Present
Falk & Guzman, 1984
Distribution map (south america) Brazil: Present
Lin, 1979Chile: Present
Rosales et al., 2004Colombia: Present
Distribution map (pacific) Australia: Present
Latham & Jones, 2004Tasmania: Present
Archer et al., 2000Western Australia: Present
Archer et al., 2000New Zealand: Present
Thomas & Fry, 1972; Thomas, 1973