Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Growth habit Caption M. pudica in the field. Copyright ©S.D. Sawant	Growth habit	M. pudica in the field.	©S.D. Sawant
Title Leaf Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Leaf		©Colin Wilson
Title Stem and spines Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Stem and spines		©Colin Wilson
Title Spines Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Spines		©Colin Wilson
Title Flower and leaves Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Flower and leaves		©Colin Wilson
Title Flowers Caption Copyright NOVARTIS	Flowers		NOVARTIS
Title Flowers Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Flowers		©Colin Wilson
Title Seed pods Caption Copyright ©S.D. Sawant	Seed pods		©S.D. Sawant
Title Seed pods Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Seed pods		©Colin Wilson
Title Seed pods Caption Copyright ©Colin Wilson	Seed pods		©Colin Wilson

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Mimosa pudica L.

Preferred Common Name

• sensitive plant

International Common Names

• English: action plant; dead-and-awake; humble plant; live-and-die; mimosa; shame bush; shame plant; touch-me-not
• Spanish: dormidera; dormilona; espino; hierba púdica; mimosa vergonzosa; mirame y no me toques; zarza; zarza dormolona; zarzón
• French: honteuse mâle; mimosa commun; mimosa pudique

Local Common Names

• American Samoa: vao fefe; vao tuitui
• Bangladesh: lajjabati; lajjabati lata
• Brazil: dorme-dorme; dormilona; malicia; malicia de mulher; moriviví; ti-marie dormidera; vergonzosa
• Cambodia: paklab; sampeas
• Cook Islands: paope ãvare; pikika'a; rãkau 'avare; rãkau 'avarevare; rãkau pikika; rãkau pikika'a; tiare pikika'a; titã pikika'a
• Cuba: dormidera
• Dominican Republic: moriviví
• Fiji: cogadrogadro
• French Guiana: sensitive; sensitive epineuse
• French Polynesia: pohe ha'avare; pope ha'avare; teitahakaia; tetahakina
• Germany: Mimose, Gemeine; Sinnpflanze, Schamhafte
• Guam: betguen sosa
• Haiti: honte
• Hawaii: hilahila; pua hilahila; pua-hilahila; sleeping grass
• India: lajja; lajjavathi; lajkuli; lajwanti; mutlamurike; thotta surungi; thottavadi
• Indonesia: boedjang kajit; daven kagat-kaget; koetjingan; pis kucing; putri malu; si kejut
• Italy: erba casta; sensitiva
• Japan: ojigiso
• Java: kuchingan; randelik; ri sirepan
• Malaysia: Keman; Kembang gajah; Kemunchup; malu-malu; Melamu; Puteri malu; Rumput rimau; Semalu
• Mexico: pinahul-huixtle; quecupatli; vergüenza
• Micronesia, Federated states of: limemeihr; limemeirpwong (Pohnpei)
• Nicaragua: dormidera
• Niue: memege
• Pakistan: chui mui; lajwanti
• Palau: mechiuaiuu
• Philippines: babain; huya-huya; kirom-kirom; makahiya; makahiyang babae; sipug-sipug; torog-torog; tuyag-tuyag
• Ryukyu Archipelago: Ojigi-Sô
• Samoa: vao fefe; vao tuitui
• South Africa: humble plant; kruidjie-roer-my-nie; shame plant; shame weed
• Sri Lanka: dedinnaru; nidi-kumba; thodda-chinunki; thoddal-vadi; thodda-vadi-kodi
• Suriname: kruidje-roer-me-niet; sien sien; sjeng sjeng tap joe kotto; sjensjen
• Taiwan: han hsui tsau; hau hsui tsau
• Thailand: mai yarap; ra ngap; yaa pan yot
• Tonga: mateloi
• United States Virgin Islands: grishi grishi; gritchee; sensitive plant
• Venezuela: dormidera
• Vietnam: mäc cö
• Zanzibar: Kifyauwongo

EPPO code

• MIMPU (Mimosa pudica)

Summary of Invasiveness

M. pudica is an annual or biannual sub-woody plant typically spreads in disturbed areas in much of the tropics. It can be readily and accidentally dispersed thanks to its propagules that stick to mammals’ hairs and human clothing. It becomes extremely weedy in disturbed sites, often forming monotypic ground cover, and is a major weed of many tropical crops.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Fabales
•                         Family: Fabaceae
•                             Subfamily: Mimosoideae
•                                 Genus: Mimosa
•                                     Species: Mimosa pudica

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Mimosa comes from the Greek word mimikos, which means 'to mimic' or 'counterfeit', through the Latin word mimus and suffix -osa, which means 'abounding in', and refers to the many flowers that appear to be a single flower (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). The specific name pudica is from the Latin word that means 'modest' or 'bashful' (Holm et al., 1977).

A number of varieties are recognised. In the neotropics, var. unijuga and var. tetrandra are the most widespread and their distributions somewhat overlap; var. unijuga occurs throughout the Caribbean, central and northern South America whereas var. tetrandra is mainly found in Columbia and Venezuela and its presence in southeast Brazil probably results from introductions. The var. hispida is scattered throughout the Americas and may have arisen from south-western Mexico and then been introduced elsewhere in the neotropics. The var. pastoris is sparsely distributed in and around the Guyanas (Barneby, 1991). In West Africa, Hutchinson et al. (1958) note that two varieties occur in West Africa - var. hispida and var. unijuga. USDA-NCRS (2008) indicates that var. unijuga also occurs in Hawaii, while the form occurring in continental USA and in Puerto Rico is var. pudica.

Description

The following description is adapted from Cardenas et al. (1972), Ali (1973), Holm et al. (1977), Kostermans et al. (1987), Waterhouse and Norris (1987), Henty and Pritchard (1988) and Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992).

M. pudica is a low-growing, much-branched, prickly, perennial shrub. It grows 15-100 cm tall and may be erect, but more generally has a trailing, sprawling growth habit. The stems are woody at the base, stiff, cylindrical, reddish-brown or purple, pubescent and bear scattered prickles along the internodes. The prickles are 3-4 mm long, compressed, slightly curved, hard and very sharp. The root is long and robust. The leaves are dark green, bipinnate and hairy. The pinnae are in two pairs (sometimes only one pair) arising close together from the tip of the petiole so the arrangement appears palmate. The petiole is about 2.5 cm long and the pinnae are 2.5-5 cm long. There are 12-50 leaflets, each 6-12 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, oblong-linear and pointed, glabrous above but with a hairy margin and lower surface. The stipules are linear-lanceolate and 7-8 mm long. Leaflets and leaves fold up rapidly when touched and also close at night.

Flowers are bright purplish-pink with four prominent stamens and occur in globular or ovoid heads about 9 mm in diameter. The calyx is minute and the corolla is four-lobed and about 2 mm long. Peduncles, 12-25 mm long, arise from leaf axils, are densely hairy and carry prickles. Fruits are borne in clusters in the leaf axils. Each fruit is an oblong, flattened, recurved pod about 8-20 mm long and 2-6 mm wide containing 1-5 seeds. The pod is pointed at the apex, glabrous, edged with bristles and breaks into one-seeded segments which fall away from unbroken marginal sutures when mature. The one-seeded segments bear bristles which aid in dispersal by animals and man. The seed is light-brown, flattened, 2.5-3 mm in diameter and with a finely granular surface. Each plant can produce up to 700 seeds in a year.

Hutchinson et al. (1958) note that three varieties are recognised, two of which occur in West Africa: var. hispida with stipules 8-14 mm long and bracteoles exceeding the grey-puberulous corolla buds, and var. unijuga with stipules 4-8 mm long and bracteoles shorter than the glabrous flower buds. USDA-NRCS (2008) indicates that var. unijuga also occurs in Hawaii, while the form occurring in continental USA and in Puerto Rico is var. pudica.

Plant Type

Distribution

M. pudica is of tropical American origin, native from southern Mexico to mid South America and the Caribbean. It is likely that the species has been introduced to some of the extreme parts of the New World range. Also, some of the varieties have been introduced beyond their pre-Columbian distributions (Barneby, 1991), e.g. var. tetrandra is mainly found in Colombia and Venezuela and its presence in southeast Brazil probably results from introductions. The var. hispida may have arisen from south-western Mexico before being introduced elsewhere in the neotropics.

It has been widely introduced and has become a serious weed throughout the world's tropical regions (Holm et al., 1977; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Being widely kept as a curiosity, M. pudica was introduced to many parts of the Old World tropics and cultivated in greenhouses in temperate regions. Although in the USA the species has been reported as occurring on disturbed grounds from Florida to Texas, the only voucher specimens collected have been from indoor cultivation (Anon., 1950; Isely, 1971).

The history of its introduction is obscure, but in most of the tropics it must have taken place during the 1800s. However, the plant is known to have been spread in Asia from mission to mission by Jesuit fathers (Barneby, 1991), thus it was introduced prior to 1800. Wu et al. (2003) state that it was introduced to Taiwan as early 1645. In Hong Kong, it was reported as being in cultivation in 1857, but became a rampant weed soon after that. It reached Samoa by 1839 and Tonga in 1940 (Whistler, 1983). By the late 1800s it was considered a 'pest' in Thailand (Culbertson, 1894). By 1900 it had become a troublesome weed in Sri Lanka, in coconut groves and tea plantations in particular (Fairchild, 1902).

It is believed that the introduced material is essentially uniform over extensive areas. In the Philippines and southern Africa all material appears to belong to var. hispida, rare in its native range, whereas in Hawaii it reflects the characteristics of var. unijuga (Barneby, 1991; Henderson, 2003). In Australia, Cunningham et al. (2003) listed var. tetrandra as invasive although they considered it doubtful that the different varieties could be differentiated. Being now so well established it is not a candidate for eradication. In the Northern Territory it is declared a noxious weed requiring its growth and spread to be controlled (Miller, 2003). In Hong Kong, it is still used as an ornamental (Chan et al., 2002).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

As a botanical curiosity and attractive plant to grow, this species will continue to be available from internet sources and is certain to be purchased and introduced to further sites. The dispersal mechanism of the species, i.e. propagules readily adhering to animals and human clothing, means that both long-distance dispersal by humans and secondary introductions are always a possibility unless strict quarantine measures are implemented.

Habitat

Although it is often grown as an annual ornamental, M. pudica grows as a perennial in the tropical or subtropical regions of the world, in a wide range of soils, from sea level up to an elevation of about 1300 m, in crops, pastures, lawns, roadsides, gardens, disturbed soils and waste places (Holm et al., 1977; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). Typically, M. pudica is found in heavily disturbed areas (e.g. volcanoes, mining sites) or disturbed forests, but disappears in the early stages of vegetation succession (Uphof, 1924; Swaine and Hall, 1983). It tolerates full sun or heavy shade, but is usually found in moist places (Kostermans et al., 1987).

In Belize, M. pudica is widespread in pastures (37 out of 78 sample sites) but of low local abundance. It is a main component of the weed community of farmland, but is not associated with crop fields (Kellman, 1973). In other parts of Central America it may be found in grassland with a scattered shrub layer, or in salt meadows and savanna vegetation near Nicaragua's Pacific coast (Taylor, 1963). It is also readily found in disturbed areas, such as along railways, for instance in the Mexican Chiapas region (Matuda, 1950).

Habitat List

Host Plants/Plants Affected

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The reported chromosome number is 2n=52 (Berger et al., 1958), a tetraploid, in comparison to the diploid M. diplotricha (2n = 26) (Lewis, 2005).

Attempts to select spineless types for use in pastures have failed because homozygosity has not been achieved and the plants revert to the spiny form. The existence of four accepted varieties indicates significant genetic variation.

Reproductive Biology

The inflorescence is a head of small flowers that only lasts half a day, typically blooming from 8.00 am to noon. Food is present in the form of pollen and solitary bees have been observed to forage for pollen (Percival, 1974). According to Raw (1976) in Jamaica, the pollen of M. pudica was the most common in samples from the bees Exomalopsis globosa and E. similis. Although, they are accessible to all pollinators they only appear to be visited by Apidae (Leppik, 1956). In a lowland mixed-dipterocarp forest in Sabah, Malaysia, the pollen composition of stingless bee (Trigona collina) pellets contained 3.7% M. pudica type pollen (Eltz, 2001). In French Guiana, M. pudica reproductive success is negatively affected by the invasive Africanised honeybee (Apis mellifera scutella). Fruit set was reduced by 6% and seed set declined by 26% when these honey bees represented 74% of the flower visitors as compared to forest populations almost exclusively visited by native bees (Butz Huryn, 1997).

Reproduction is only by seeds and each plant may produce upwards of 700 seeds. The bristled seed segments can be readily carried on animal fur or on clothing. Some seeds germinate rapidly in moist soil, but others may remain dormant and viable in the soil for many years. Under laboratory conditions; 80% germination has been obtained in four weeks at alternating temperatures of 20° and 30°C, and scarification of seeds with sulphuric acid enhanced germination. After 19 years of storage, 2% of the seeds germinated (Holm et al., 1977). Germination rate in Petri dishes is around 90% and is only slightly lower (80%) when seeds are placed in water (Morinaga, 1926). In Belize, Kellman (1978) observed a seedbank with up to 400 seeds/m² in 10% of investigated pastures. In Queensland, Australia, only seven seeds were found in the seed bank of one of four investigated pastures (Navie et al., 2004).

Physiology and Phenology

M. pudica is generally perennial in warmer climates, although it is often cultivated as an annual in temperate areas. The plant grows rapidly and stems branch profusely. Flowering commences about 3 months after germination, and can occur throughout the year in tropical countries. Investigations in the lowland forests of Costa Rica, a region with a dry season spanning from mid-November to mid-May, showed that leaf flushing occurred between May and November. Flowering lasted from March to November and mature fruits were observed between October and December, and between February and April (Opler et al., 1980). In the Philippines the plants flower all year round (Holm et al., 1977). In Hong Kong, flowering occurs between March and October and fruiting lasts from May to November (Chan et al., 2002).

Perhaps its most striking characteristic is its ability to move its leaves rapidly in response to stimulation. Stimulating agents that can induce rapid leaf movements include shock and shaking, localized applied pressure, sudden temperature changes, increase in hydrostatic pressure, increase in light intensity, X-rays, electrical stimulation, chemical agents and physical injuries (Roblin, 1979). Fairchild (1902) reported that as a train advanced along a railway line embankment, he observed the quick falling of the leaves like the progress of a roller on the sea coast. The leaflets close and the petiole falls within a couple of seconds of stimulation, while the recovery takes an hour or more (Charnley et al., 1975), although Hitchcock (1893) reported that in Jamaica the leaves recovered from a shock in 9-11 minutes. When one part of the plant receives sufficient stimulation, a 'wave' of some kind of excitation spreads over the plant with a velocity of up to 10 mm/s, evident as movements of parts of the plant. The primary mode of conductance of the excitation is thought to be electric (Tinz-Fuchtmeier and Gradmann, 1990). The plant is able to adapt to constant stimulation, such as during rainfall, by reopening its leaves (Applewhite, 1972). Kanzawa et al (2006) propose that the phosphorylation status of actin at tyrosine residues affects the dynamic reorganization of actin filaments and causes the seismonastic movement.

Motor organs or 'pulvini' form true articulations between different parts of the plant. The primary pulvinus is the joint between the stem and the whole leaf, the secondary pulvini allow the pinnae to move at the tip of the petiole, and the tertiary pulvini form the junctions of the pinnules with the rachises (Roblin, 1979). When the leaves are closed, their photosynthetic rate declines by 40%, probably due to a reduced leaf area available to receive incident illumination (Hoddinott, 1977).

The circadian leaf movement, controlled by a biological clock, of M. pudica is initiated by the regulated balance of leaf opening and closing substances, and has been reported in detail by Ueda and Yamamura (2000).

Environmental Requirements

It is usually abundant in humid tropic open lowland areas, but it also occurs at higher elevations (Anon., 1950). In the Comoros, it reaches an altitude of 800 m (Ibrahim, 2003) or more. It prefers annual rainfall from 1000 mm toan estimated 5000mm.The plant is usually associated with wetter grounds and can grow on a wide variety of soils. It is typically light demanding but appears to be able to tolerate a certain degree of shading.

Associations

M. pudica is a nitrogen-fixing legume and possesses root nodules housing Rhizobium bacteria (Allen and Allen, 1981).
 

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rain Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• impeded

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• shallow

Natural Enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

In Fiji, M. pudica is attacked by four widely polyphagous scale insects and the polyphagous cluster caterpillar (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). Preliminary surveys in Brazil and Trinidad have found a number of mainly polyphagous insects attacking the plant (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). In Panama, it is palatable to the leaf-cutting ant Atta colombica (Rockwood, 1976). It is a larval food plant of the butterflies Eurema nise and E. lisa (Percival, 1974). Initial tests in Cuba with larvae of the butterfly Hemiargus hanno filenus indicate that it feeds readily on M. pudica seeds, is particularly active in spring when most seed is produced, and appears to be host-specific (Perez et al., 1988). Also in Cuba, M. pudica acts as an alternative host of the pest nematode Meloidogyne sp. in coffee plantations, necessitating control of the weed (Izquierdo et al., 1987).

A leaf spot fungus, Cercospora pudicae, which is associated with leaf scorching and blackening was described from Puerto Rico, and has since been shown to be widespread and is common in India (Evans, 1987). For detailed studies of the natural enemies of M. pudica, see Waterhouse (1994).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

Seed could be transported by running water or during flood events.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Propagules readily stick to mammals' fur and human clothing and thus may be dispersed over large distances.

Intentional Introduction

Original introductions of M. pudica occurred for reasons of being an ornamental plant, and as a botanical curiosity due to the sensitive, folding foliage.

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

M. pudica is a serious pest of crops and pastures throughout the tropics (see Host Range). Holm et al. (1979) list it as a ‘serious’ or ‘principal’ weed in Borneo, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Cuba, Fiji, India, Peru, Thailand and Trinidad. It was regarded by Holm et al. (1977) as one of the world's 76 worst weeds, although Waterhouse and Norris (1987) consider it to be somewhat less of a problem than M. invisa. It is regarded as being among the 10 worst weeds in French Polynesia, Guam, the Solomon Islands and Tonga (Waterhouse, 1985). The plant can survive mowing and when dead can be a fire hazard (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). Hand weeding is a hazardous practice because prickles can break off in the skin and cause serious septic sores (Holm et al., 1977; Kostermans et al., 1987; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). In direct-sown upland rice in Kerala, India, infestations of M. pudica can lead to a 10-70% reduction in grain yield (Joseph and Bridgit, 1993).

M. pudica is an important weed of dry-seeded, wet-seeded, transplanted and upland rice in south-eastern Asia and the Pacific. It is reported to cause losses in Bangladesh, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam (Patel, 1972; Holm et al., 1977; Mandal, 1977; Kostermans et al., 1987; Moody, 1989; Joseph and Bridgit, 1993). It is considered a serious weed in field crops such as sugarcane in Mexico and Taiwan (Holm et al., 1977), sorghum and maize in Malaysia and Indonesia (Holm et al., 1977), soyabeans in the Philippines (Holm et al., 1977) and tomatoes, pineapples and cotton (Lee Soo Ann, 1976;Waterhouse and Norris, 1987).

Due to its ability to grow in partial shade, it is also a serious weed in plantation crops such as: rubber in Mexico, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Malaysia (Holm et al., 1977); tea in Bangladesh (Akbar, 1968), southern India (Haridas and Sharma, 1973), Sri Lanka (Fairchild, 1902), and Indonesia (Holm et al., 1977); coconuts in Papua New Guinea (Henty and Pritchard, 1988), Indonesia (Kostermans et al., 1987) and Sri Lanka (Fairchild, 1902; Salgado, 1972); coffee in Cuba (Izquierdo et al., 1987); oil palms in Cameroon (Gaullier, 1986); and bananas, papaya and citrus (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). In India, M. pudica is a predominant weed in mango nursery beds (Challa, 1984) and in southern Sumatra, Indonesia it is a weed in Acacia mangium plantations (Nazif, 1993).

M. pudica is most commonly and widely reported as a weed of pastures. It causes problems in Panama (Pinzon et al., 1989), Puerto Rico (Gonzales-Ibanez, 1977), the Caribbean (Hammerton, 1981), the Brazilian Amazon (Dias-Filho, 1990), the Peruvian Amazon (Ordonez and Reyes, 1984), Sri Lanka (Fairchild, 1902), Fiji (Partridge, 1986), Indonesia (Kostermans et al., 1987), Papua New Guinea (Henty and Pritchard, 1988) and the Solomon Islands (Steel and Whiteman, 1980). It also causes serious problems in lawns on Guam (McConnell and Muniappan, 1991).

In contrast, Reynolds (1981) has reported that long-term coconut yields can be maintained or even increased in Western Samoa when M. pudica is grown as a component of a grazed improved pasture within coconut plantations.

Seeds, leaves and other parts of M. pudica contain the non-protein amino acid mimosine (beta(N)[3 hydroxy-4 pyridone] alpha-amino propionic acid), which rumen microbes convert into a toxic compound that interferes seriously with thyroid gland function and causes hair loss and other toxic effects, particularly to ruminants, rats, mice, pigs and poultry (Ebuenga et al., 1979; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). It is suspected of poisoning cattle in Papua New Guinea, especially when cut and dried (Henty and Pritchard, 1988) and has caused stunted growth in chickens in Indonesia (Kostermans et al., 1987). Experimental transfer of other rumen bacteria can convert stock into animals not harmed by mimosine.

M. pudica is grazed by cattle in Fiji, Australia, Samoa, the Solomon Islands and India (Reynolds, 1981; Watson and Whiteman, 1981; Smith and Whiteman, 1985; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Sah and Pathak, 1988). However, Partridge (1986) reported that M. pudica tended to reduce available feed for cattle in Fiji and subsequent cattle growth rates because the cattle tended to avoid the thorny stems and only nibble the growing tips. Gaullier (1986) considered it to be only moderately palatable to cattle in Cameroon. In mixed pastures in the Solomon Islands, M. pudica and M. invisa were both grazed at moderate stocking rates and were maintained as small and manageable plants. At higher stocking rates bare areas of ground were induced, allowing invasion of woody weeds. At lower rates, steers were not forced to graze the Mimosa spp. and large impenetrable thickets developed (Smith and Whiteman, 1985). When cattle grazed mixed pastures including M. pudica under coconuts in Western Samoa, long-term coconut yields were maintained or even increased (Reynolds, 1981). Sheep are very fond of wild legumes, especially M. pudica, which invade coconut groves in Vanuatu (Simonnet, 1990), and goats fulfil the same role in Malaysia (Murken and Mukherjee, 1988).

In the Comoros the species hinders crop productivity and increases labour due to the need to weed the plant from crops. However, it is used by agriculturalists, like some other introduced weeds, as straw (Vos, 2004).

In Brazil, M. pudica is an important honey plant and in the north and may even produce monofloral honeys (Barth, 2004).

 

Environmental Impact

When dry, thickets of M. pudica may be a fire hazard and are said to prevent the regeneration of other species (PIER, 2008). In meadows it is reported "to kill out all other plants" (Fairchild, 1902). The impact of this plant on biodiversity appears to be as yet rather limited. In the Comoros, however, the species is viewed as being a real threat to the native flora (Ibrahim, 2003).

Social Impact

Due to its sensitive leaves, M. pudica always has been a major horticultural curiosity, both in the tropics and in temperate glasshouses. It is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental plant in South Africa (Wells et al., 1986), Pakistan (Ali, 1973) and Hong Kong (Chan et al., 2002). However, when it spreads in tropical regions it is generally viewed as having a negative impact. In the Comoros, because of its curved spines, it causes serious problems to people clearing scrub dominated by this plant (Ibrahim, 2003).

Risk and Impact Factors

Impact mechanisms

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - smothering
• Poisoning
• Produces spines, thorns or burrs
• Rapid growth

Impact outcomes

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Host damage
• Modification of fire regime
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Negatively impacts human health
• Reduced native biodiversity

Invasiveness

• Abundant in its native range
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Fast growing
• Has a broad native range
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Invasive in its native range
• Long lived
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Tolerant of shade
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc

Likelihood of entry/control

• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
• Difficult to identify/detect in the field
• Difficult/costly to control
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

In China, M. pudica is planted amongst young rubber trees where it successfully competes with and reduces the damage caused by Imperata cylindrica (cogongrass, alang-alang or blady grass) (Yang-Han, 1983). It has also been planted to control soil erosion.

The roots yield about 19% tannin (Allen and Allen, 1981) and the plant is used in the production of coating materials (Sah and Pathak, 1988). In Guadeloupe, Trinidad and Tobago, Cuba, India, Malaysia and the Philippines, M. pudica is an important source of pollen grains for Italian honeybees (Apis mellifera) and other bees (Torregrossa, 1983; Bootsma et al., 1988; Diaz-Millen and Moncada, 1988; Maishihah and Kiew, 1989; Payawal et al., 1991; Ramanujam and Khatija, 1991).

M. pudica is said to have medicinal properties in Pakistan (Ali, 1973) and India (Sah and Pathak, 1988; Balakrishnan et al., 2006); the seeds have emetic properties (Allen and Allen, 1981) and in the West Indies, the plant is used as a folk antihelminthic medicine (Williams and Mansingh, 1993), during childbirth and for infertility (Lans, 2007). Stems, leaves and roots are used to treat insomnia, spasms and convulsions in Vanuatu (Englert et al., 1994), and Chan et al. (2002) reported that it is used as a medicinal plant in Hong Kong.

Extracts of the plant are known to have moderate insecticidal effects (Williams and Mansingh, 1993), inhibit mycelial growth, conidial germination and uredospore germination of various plant pathogens and are toxic to certain other plants (Ebuenga et al., 1979).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Forage
• Invertebrate food

Environmental

• Amenity
• Soil improvement

General

• Botanical garden/zoo
• Ornamental
• Research model

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Propagation material
• Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

M. pudica can be readily distinguished from most other plants by the rapid movements of its leaves and leaflets when they are touched. However, this test is of no use in distinguishing M. pudica from M. invisa [M. diplotricha], which is also sensitive to touch, also considered one of the world's worst weeds and occurs throughout the world's tropical regions (Holm et al., 1977). M. diplotricha has stems which are conspicuously four-angled, with numerous recurved prickles occurring along the angles of the stems. M. pudica, in contrast, has round stems with only occasional pairs of prickles. Where the bipinnate leaves of M. pudica generally have one or two pairs of pinnae, the leaves of M. diplotricha have four to nine pairs of pinnae.

M. pudica is quite similar to M. polydactyla but has a simpler leaf formula, broader stipules and longer filaments, and is distinguishable from the Mexican M. affinis only by a difference in legume setae (Anon., 1950; Barneby, 1991). M. pudica is a variable species and Barneby (1991) recognised four varieties that can only be keyed using flowering material. These are vars. unijuga, tetrandra, pastoris and hispida. The var. pudica refers to the single sterile Linnaean herbarium specimen that cannot be positively identified (Barneby, 1991).

Prevention and Control

Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods

M. pudica in pastures can be encouraged by overgrazing by cattle (Chadhokar, 1978), and insufficient grazing pressure can also lead to an increase in the weed, as the animals are not forced to eat it (Smith and Whiteman, 1985). When M. pudica is present under plantation crops, it can be kept in check by grazing with sheep (Simonnet, 1990) or goats (Salgado, 1972). Seeds can be readily transported by animals on their fur (Holm et al., 1977). 

Physical/Mechanical Control

Very young plants can be uprooted by hand (Chadhokar, 1978), but older plants have woody stems and are difficult to pull up by hand (McConnell and Muniappan, 1991). Cuts caused by the sharp prickles when hand weeding can result in serious septic sores (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). Hand weeding and hoeing are the practices commonly followed for weed control in upland rice areas in Kerala, India (Joseph and Bridgit, 1993).

Biological Control

There appears to be no work currently in progress on biological control of M. pudica (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987; Waterhouse, 1994). Biological control projects against M. invisa [M. diplotricha] (Kuniata, 1994) and M. pigra (Wilson et al., 1996) have met with some success, and the prospects for similar success against M. pudica would seem to be good. M. pudica was susceptible and severely damaged by Fusarium pallidoroseum isolated from diseased M. diplotricha in the Philippines (Baars, 2000). Neurostrota gunniella (Gracillariidae) was introduced into Australia from Mexico in 1986 for the biological control of M. pigra. It bred readily on M. pigra and to a much lesser extent on M. pudica (Forno et al., 2000). Larvae of the moth Psigida walkeri tested as a biological control agent of M. diplotricha was found to feed on a number of species, including M. pudica which suffered from severe defoliation, and thus was not released in Australia (Vitelli, 2001).

Chemical Control

Due to difficulties with hand weeding, chemical control is the most frequently used method of treating infestations of M. pudica. Foliar sprays of chemicals such as glyphosate are commonly used (Akbar, 1968; Wong, 1975; Mandal, 1977; Steel and Whiteman, 1980; Chang et al., 1982; Kostermans et al., 1987; Henty and Pritchard, 1988; Challa et al., 1991; Nazif, 1993) but wetting of the foliage must be thorough (Chadhokar, 1978; Henty and Pritchard, 1988). The amount of chemical used can be reduced by application to regrowth following slashing or burning (Chadhokar, 1978) and glyphosate can be mixed at a reduced rate with urea without reducing the effectiveness of the chemical treatment (Purea, 1985). Spraying should be carried out after rain when the plants are actively growing (Chadhokar, 1978).

Other post-emergence herbicides active on M. pudica include dicamba, picloram and triclopyr (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992), as well as fenoprop and amitrole may also be used. 2,4-D alone may not be fully effective, but mixtures with MSMA and with ioxynil are recommended (Kostermans et al., 1987). Pre-emergence herbicides effective against a range of weeds, including M. pudica, in a mango nursery included oxyfluorfen, diuron, atrazine and isoproturon (Challa, 1984). Post-emergence application of propanil + oxadiazon was reported to be effective in upland rice (Mandal, 1977).

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Contributors

10/04/2008 Updated by:

Chris Parker, Consultant, UK

Distribution Maps

• = Present, no further details
• = Evidence of pathogen
• = Widespread
• = Last reported
• = Localised
• = Presence unconfirmed
• = Confined and subject to quarantine
• = See regional map for distribution within the country
• = Occasional or few reports

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