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Datasheet

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode)

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 10 February 2017
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Invasive Species
  • Pest
  • Natural Enemy
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Meloidogyne incognita
  • Preferred Common Name
  • root-knot nematode
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Nematoda
  •             Family: Meloidogynidae
  •                 Genus: Meloidogyne

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Pictures

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PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, full body image.
TitleMale
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, full body image.
Copyright©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, full body image.
MaleMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, full body image.©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, spicule.
TitleMale
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, spicule.
Copyright©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, spicule.
MaleMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, spicule.©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
TitleMale
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
Copyright©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
MaleMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
TitleMale
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
Copyright©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
MaleMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
TitleMale
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
Copyright©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.
MaleMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); male, perineal pattern.©Pest & Diseases Image Library (PaDIL) - CC BY 3.0 AU
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); female. (Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
TitleFemale
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); female. (Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Copyright©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); female. (Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
FemaleMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); female. (Reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
TitleCuticular patterns
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Copyright©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Cuticular patternsMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females.
(reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
TitleCuticular patterns
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Copyright©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females.
(reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Cuticular patternsMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
TitleCuticular patterns
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Copyright©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Cuticular patternsMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
TitleCuticular patterns
CaptionMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Copyright©CAB International
Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)
Cuticular patternsMeloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode); posterior cuticular patterns of females. (reproduced from Orton Williams KJ, 1973. CIH Descriptions of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Set 2, No.18. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.)©CAB International

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White, 1919) Chitwood 1949

Preferred Common Name

  • root-knot nematode

Other Scientific Names

  • Meloidogyne acrita Chitwood, 1949
  • Meloidogyne incognita acrita Chitwood, 1949
  • Meloidogyne wartellei Golden & Birchfield, 1978
  • Oxyuris incognita Kofoid & White, 1919

International Common Names

  • English: root-knot eelworm; southern root-knot nematode
  • Spanish: anguillula de las raices; nemátodo agallador; nemátodo de la raiz; nemátodo de las agallas; nemátodo de los nódulos de las raíces; nemátodo nódulador; nemátodo sureno de quiste (Mexico)
  • French: anguillule a noeud de la patate; anguillule des racines; nématode à galles; nématode cécidogène; nématode des galles des racines; nématode des racines
  • Portuguese: nematóide das galhas

Local Common Names

  • Denmark: rodgalle-nematode
  • Germany: knoellchen-aelchen; knoellchen-nematode; suedliches wurzelgallen-aelchen
  • Italy: anguillula delle radici; anguillula gallicola delle radici
  • Japan: satumaimo-nekobu-sentyu
  • Turkey: kok ur nematodu

EPPO code

  • MELGIN (Meloidogyne incognita)

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Nematoda
  •             Family: Meloidogynidae
  •                 Genus: Meloidogyne
  •                     Species: Meloidogyne incognita

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of pageMost Meloidogyne species are difficult to identify with certainty due to their inherent variability. Material of both the adult females and the infective juveniles should be examined before coming to a conclusion. Male characters can also be useful in some instances.

Description

Top of pageDescription (after Orton Williams, 1973)

Female
Endoparasitic, body spherical with projecting neck. Head with 2 or occasionally 3 annules behind head-cap. Cuticle thickening abruptly at base of relaxed stylet. Stylet knobs rounded or drawn out laterally. Excretory pore at level of or posterior to stylet knobs, 10-20 annules behind head. Posterior cuticular pattern displays bewildering variation. Typical pattern 'incognita type' with striae closely spaced, very wavy to zig-zag especially dorsally and laterally. Dorsal arch high, rounded. Lateral field not clear, sometimes marked by breaks in striae, broken ends often forked, pattern merging into body striae. 'Acrita type' with striae smoother, more widely spaced (or with coarse widely spaced striae separated by fine closely spaced striae visible for short distances). Dorsal arch variable, may be flattened at top or trapezoid. Striae often forked along a 'lateral line'. Limits of pattern more or less well-defined. Aberrant patterns occur.

Male
Head not offset, a high truncate cone shape, clearly annulated. Head-cap with stepped outline in lateral view; annule number behind head-cap very variable, usually 1-3 on sublateral head sectors and 1-5 on lateral head sectors. Conus of stylet longer than shaft, stylet knobs prominent, usually of greater width than length, with flat, concave or 'toothed' anterior margins. Excretory pore at level of posterior end of isthmus with hemizonid usually 0-5 annules anterior. Lateral field with 4 incisures, outer bands areolated, inner band rarely cross-striated except at posterior end. Testes 1 or 2. Tail bluntly rounded, terminus unstriated. Phasmids at cloaca level or just anterior. Spicules slightly curved, gubernaculum crescentic.

Juvenile
Head not offset, truncate cone shape in lateral view, sub-hemispherical in dorso-ventral view. Head-cap wide followed by 2 clear annules on sublateral head sectors (lateral view), 3 annules on lateral head sectors (dorsal or ventral view). Stylet knobs prominent, rounded. Hemizonid 3 annules long just anterior to excretory pore. Lateral field with 4 incisures, outer bands cross striated. Rectum inflated. Tail tapering to subacute terminus, striae coarsening posteriorly.

Measurements (After Whitehead, 1968)

20 females: L = 500-723 (609) µm; width = 331-520 (415) µm; stylet (10) = 13-16 (14) µm; width stylet base (10) = 3-5 (4) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (8) = 2-4 (3) µm behind stylet base; length median bulb (10) = 37-63 (46) µm; width median bulb (10) = 31-49 (39) µm; length median bulb valves (10) = 13-16 (14) µm; width median bulb valves (10) = 11-13 (12) µm.

14 males: L = 1108-1953 (1583) µm; a = 31.4-55.4 (46.3); length head (13) = 6.8-8.6 (7.9) µm; stylet (13) = 23.0-32.7 (25.0) µm; width stylet base (13) = 4.7-6.8 (5.8) µm; dorsal oesophageal gland orifice (4) = 1.4-2.5 (2.1) µm behind stylet base; b' (12) = 13.8-20.5 (17.4); c (13) = 97-255 (146); length median bulb (12) = 14.4-25.2 (20.0) µm; width median bulb (12) = 8.6-15.8 (11.2) µm; length median bulb valves (12) = 5.8-9.0 (7.2) µm; spicules (length of arc) (12) = 28.8-40.3 (35.2) µm; gubernaculum (7) = 9.4-13.7 (11.2) µm.

25 juveniles: L = 337-403 (371) µm; a = 24.9-31.5 (28.3); b (21) = 2.02-3.14 (2.36); b' (24) = 6.4-8.4 (7.1); length tail = 38-55 (46) µm; d = 4.0-5.6 (4.9); c = 6.9-10.6 (8.1); length body to middle of genital primordium = 212-247 (230) µm; stylet = 9.6-11.7 (10.5) µm; length median bulb (24) = 10.1-12.9 (11.3) µm; width median bulb (24) = 5.8-8.3 (7.3) µm; length median bulb valves (22) = 3.6-6.47 (5.2) µm.

Distribution

Top of pageM. incognita has also been recorded from the following areas of protected agriculture; for example, around temperate research stations and other areas of intensive horticulture. In some cases the nematodes have been able to overwinter due to mild winters and could be expanding their geographical range.

Armenia (Pogosyan and Karapetyan, 1976), Heilongjiang and Ningxia in China (Yang et al., 1991), Hokkaido in Japan (Yamada and Takakura, 1975), Belarus (Gladkaya, 1981), Estonia (Pallum, 1972), Latvia (Rasina, 1970), Lithuania (Rudzyavichene et al., 1975), Macedonia (Krnjaic, 1977), Moldavia (Batyr and Kozhokaru, 1985), Poland (Brzeski et al., 1978), Romania (Romascu et al., 1974), European part of Russia (Kozhokaru, 1972; Gushchin and Efremenko, 1975; Mar'enko, 1989), Siberia (Shiabova, 1977), Ukraine (Timchenko, 1981) and United Kingdom (IIP, 1991).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

CountryDistributionLast ReportedOriginFirst ReportedInvasiveReferencesNotes

ASIA

ArmeniaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
BangladeshWidespreadShepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Brunei DarussalamPresentReddy, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
ChinaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
-AnhuiPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-FujianPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-GuangdongPresentWu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-GuangxiPresentWu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-GuizhouPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-HainanPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-HebeiPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-HeilongjiangPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-HenanPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-HubeiPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-HunanPresentWu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-JiangsuPresentShen et al., 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-JiangxiPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Nei MengguPresentZhang et al., 1998; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-QinghaiPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ShaanxiPresentLi et al., 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ShandongPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-SichuanPresentChen et al., 1991; Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-YunnanPresentYang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ZhejiangPresentWu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Georgia (Republic of)PresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
IndiaRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Andaman and Nicobar IslandsWidespreadSalam, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Andhra PradeshPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Arunachal PradeshPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-AssamPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-BiharPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ChandigarhWidespreadMathur & Khera, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ChhattisgarhPresentSahu et al., 2011
-DelhiPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-GujaratPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-HaryanaPresentHaryana, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Himachal PradeshRestricted distributionPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Indian PunjabPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Harish et al., 2015
-Jammu and KashmirPresentBhat & Kaul, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Singh & Gupta, 2011
-KarnatakaPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-KeralaWidespreadRaveendran & Nadakal, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Madhya PradeshWidespreadTiwari & Dave, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-MaharashtraPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ManipurPresentMishra, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-MeghalayaPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-OdishaPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-RajasthanPresentMathur et al., 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-SikkimPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Tamil NaduPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-TripuraPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Uttar PradeshPresentPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Anamika, & Sobita, 2010
-UttarakhandPresentRathour et al., 2006
-West BengalWidespreadPrasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Sen & Das Gupta, 1976
IndonesiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-JavaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
-SumatraWidespreadBridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
IranPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013; Abivardi & Sharafeh, 1973
IraqPresentKatcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002
IsraelWidespreadOrion et al., 1982; Tarjan, 1953; CABI/EPPO, 2002
JapanPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-HokkaidoPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-HonshuWidespreadSaigusa & Matsumoto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-KyushuPresentAraki & Nakasono, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Ryukyu ArchipelagoPresentFukudome, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ShikokuPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
JordanPresentHashim, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002
KazakhstanPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
Korea, Republic ofPresentShepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
LebanonWidespreadSaad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MalaysiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Peninsular MalaysiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-SabahPresentLiu, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-SarawakPresentSarawak, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MongoliaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
MyanmarPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
NepalWidespreadBhardwaj & Hogger, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
OmanPresentWaller & Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
PakistanPresentQureshi et al., 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Hussain et al., 2015; Maqbool, 1986
PhilippinesPresentMadamba, 1981; Timm, 1965; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Saudi ArabiaWidespreadEissa & Hyder, 1981; Eissa, 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
SingaporePresentAVA, 2001; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Sri LankaWidespreadSivapalan, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
SyriaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
TaiwanPresentTaylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
TajikistanPresentDzhuraeva, 1976; Teben'kova, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
ThailandPresentChunram, 1972; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ruanpanun & Khun-in, 2015
TurkeyPresentBora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002
TurkmenistanWidespreadShagalina & Shagalin, 1987; Artyunov, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
UzbekistanWidespreadMavlyanov, 1972; Khurramov, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
VietnamWidespreadShepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Fam Tkhan' Bin', 1990
YemenWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002

AFRICA

AlgeriaPresentScotto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002
AngolaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
Burkina FasoPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
CameroonPresentPrice, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Congo Democratic RepublicWidespreadTaylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Côte d'IvoirePresentFortuner, 1981; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Luc & Guiran, 1960
EgyptWidespreadIbrahim et al., 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ibrahim & Handoo, 2016
EthiopiaPresentSharma & McDonald, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
GambiaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
GhanaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
GuineaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
KenyaPresentKanyagia, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Karuri et al., 2017
LiberiaWidespreadLamberti et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
LibyaWidespreadKhan & Dabaj, 1980; Dabaj & Jenser, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MadagascarWidespreadKeetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MalawiWidespreadKeetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MauritaniaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
MauritiusWidespreadLamberti et al., 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MoroccoWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
MozambiquePresentOever & Mangane, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002
NigerWidespreadSikora et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
NigeriaWidespreadAdesiyan & Odihirin, 1978; Babatola, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
RéunionWidespreadKeetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
SenegalWidespreadTaylor, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
SeychellesPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
SomaliaRestricted distributionKarshe, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2002
South AfricaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Van der Linde 1956
SpainShepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013; Tobar-Jiminez, 1984
-Canary IslandsRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002
SudanRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002
TanzaniaWidespreadAhmed, 1975; Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
TunisiaRestricted distributionMoens, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
UgandaWidespreadBridge et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002
ZambiaWidespreadKeetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002
ZimbabweWidespreadMartin & Armstrong, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002

NORTH AMERICA

BermudaWidespreadWang & Hughes, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
CanadaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-OntarioPresentJohnson & Potter, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-QuebecAbsent, unreliable recordCABI/EPPO, 2002
MexicoWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Martínez et al., 2014
USAPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-AlabamaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ArizonaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ArkansasWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-CaliforniaWidespreadTaylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ConnecticutWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-FloridaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-GeorgiaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-HawaiiWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-IllinoisRestricted distributionWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-IndianaRestricted distributionWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-KansasWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-KentuckyWidespreadTaylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-LouisianaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-MarylandWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-MississippiWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-MissouriPresentWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-New MexicoWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-New YorkWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-North CarolinaWidespreadTaylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-OklahomaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-OregonWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-PennsylvaniaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-South CarolinaWidespreadTaylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-TennesseeWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-TexasWidespreadTaylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-UtahPresentCampbell & Griffin, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-VirginiaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-WashingtonWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-West VirginiaWidespreadWalters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002

CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN

Antigua and BarbudaPresentWalker et al., 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
BarbadosWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
BelizePresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
Costa RicaWidespreadSosa, 1985; Lopez, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
CubaWidespreadCuadra et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Rivas & Gandarilla, 2012
DominicaPresentHunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Dominican RepublicWidespreadRoman & Grullon, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
El SalvadorWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
GuadeloupeWidespreadKermarrec, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
GuatemalaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
HaitiWidespreadCrill et al., 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002
HondurasWidespreadPinochet, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
JamaicaWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MartiniquePresentSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
MontserratWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
NicaraguaWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
PanamaWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Puerto RicoWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Saint LuciaWidespreadIntroducedInvasiveHunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesWidespreadHunt, 1977; Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Trinidad and TobagoWidespreadBala, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002

SOUTH AMERICA

ArgentinaWidespreadDoucet & Pinochet, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002
BoliviaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
BrazilWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
-BahiaWidespreadFreire & Ponte, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-CearaWidespreadPonte, 1968; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Espirito SantoWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
-GoiasWidespreadLordello et al., 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-MaranhaoWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Silva, 1991
-Mato Grosso do SulWidespreadLordello & Marini, 1974; Tihohod & Ferraz, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Minas GeraisWidespreadFreire & Ferraz, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ParaWidespreadFreire, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ParaibaWidespreadLopes & Lordello, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-ParanaWidespreadSantos & Silva, 1984; Lordello & Lordello, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-PernambucoWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rio de JaneiroWidespreadGoes et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rio Grande do NortePresentPonte et al., 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Rio Grande do SulWidespreadLordello & Marini, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Santa CatarinaWidespreadKalvelage & Brose, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-Sao PauloWidespreadCuri & Silveira, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002
ChileWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
ColombiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
EcuadorWidespreadVelastegui & Fiallos, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002
French GuianaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
GuyanaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
ParaguayWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
PeruPresentVargas & Pajuelo, 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Murga-Gutierrez et al., 2012
SurinameWidespreadSosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002
UruguayPresentAlvarez, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002
VenezuelaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002

EUROPE

AlbaniaRestricted distributionShepherd & Barker, 1990
BelarusRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002
BelgiumRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002; Belgium Government ARC, 1974
Bosnia-HercegovinaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
BulgariaRestricted distributionStoyanov, 1980; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
CyprusRestricted distributionPhilis, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Czech RepublicPresentTesarová et al., 2003
EstoniaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
FranceWidespreadGautier, 1975; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
GermanyRestricted distributionShepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002
GreeceRestricted distributionKyrou, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Tzortzakakis et al., 2011
-CretePresentTzortzakakis et al., 2016
HungaryRestricted distributionShepherd & Barker, 1990; Amin & Budai, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
IcelandPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
ItalyPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002; d'Errico et al., 2014
-SicilyPresentColombo et al., 2008
LatviaRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002
LithuaniaRestricted distributionCABI/EPPO, 2002
MacedoniaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
MaltaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
MoldovaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
MontenegroPresentPajovic et al., 2007
NetherlandsPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002; Netherlands Plantenziektenkundige Dienst, 1974
PolandPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
PortugalWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002
-AzoresPresentVovlas et al., 2004
RomaniaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
Russian FederationPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Central RussiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Northern RussiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Russian Far EastPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Southern RussiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-Western SiberiaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
SerbiaPresentBacic et al., 2016Bac?ki Vinogradi, Vojvodina Province
SlovakiaPresentTesarová et al., 2003
SloveniaPresentSirca et al., 2003
SpainWidespreadShepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013; Tobar-Jiminez, 1984
SwitzerlandPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
UKPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
-ScotlandPresentTesarová et al., 2003
UkrainePresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
Yugoslavia (former)PresentGrujicic, 1974
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)PresentCABI/EPPO, 2002

OCEANIA

American SamoaPresentBrooks, 2002; CABI/EPPO, 2002
AustraliaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Khair, 1986
-Australian Northern TerritoryWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Singh et al., 2012; Khair, 1986
-New South WalesWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Khair, 1986
-QueenslandWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Khair, 1986
-South AustraliaWidespreadStirling, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002
-TasmaniaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Khair, 1986
-VictoriaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Khair, 1986
-Western AustraliaWidespreadCABI/EPPO, 2002; Khair, 1986
FijiWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
KiribatiWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
New CaledoniaPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
New ZealandPresentCABI/EPPO, 2002
NiuePresentBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Norfolk IslandPresentBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Papua New GuineaWidespreadPowell, 1974; Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
SamoaWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Solomon IslandsWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
TongaWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
TuvaluWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002
VanuatuWidespreadBridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002

Risk of Introduction

Top of pageM. incognita is widely endemic in subtropical and tropical regions, thus quarantine regulations would be superfluous and none are known to be in place.

Habitat

Top of pageM. incognita is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, in particular in the warmer areas. For example, in California (USA), M. incognita is found more commonly in the hot valleys of the interior (Ferris and Van Gundy, 1979) and in East Africa it is restricted to altitudes below 2000 m above sea level (Whitehead, 1969). M. incognita is found on many soil types. Damage and yield losses caused are generally more severe on coarse-textured sandy soils (Van Gundy, 1985). Meloidogyne spp. are generally intolerant of flooded soil conditions.

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of pageM. incognita is probably the most widely distributed and economically important species of plant parasitic nematode in tropical and subtropical regions. Two-thirds of the root-knot nematode samples obtained from a number of tropical countries were of M. incognita (Sasser, 1979). In India alone, 232 plant genera have been reported as hosts to M. incognita (Krishnappa, 1985) and worldwide the species is a parasite of a wide range of crop plants.

Host Plants/Plants Affected

Top of page
Plant nameFamilyContext
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra)MalvaceaeMain
Acacia confusaFabaceaeMain
Achillea (milfoil)AsteraceaeOther
Actinidia deliciosa (kiwifruit)ActinidiaceaeOther
AgaveAgavaceaeOther
Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris)FabaceaeOther
Aloe vera (true aloe)AloaceaeOther
Amaranthus (amaranth)AmaranthaceaeOther
Amaranthus blitum (livid amaranth)AmaranthaceaeOther
Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut)AnacardiaceaeHabitat/association
Ananas comosus (pineapple)BromeliaceaeOther
Aptenia cordifoliaAizoaceaeHabitat/association
Araujia sericifera (Arejishi)AsclepiadaceaeWild host
Areca catechu (betelnut palm)ArecaceaeHabitat/association
Asparagus officinalis (asparagus)LiliaceaeOther
Basella alba (Malabar spinach)BasellaceaeHabitat/association
Bassia scopariaChenopodiaceaeOther
Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut)LecythidaceaeUnknown
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)ChenopodiaceaeOther
Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes (kohlrabi)BrassicaceaeMain
Brassicaceae (cruciferous crops)BrassicaceaeOther
Calendula officinalis (Pot marigold)AsteraceaeOther
Canavalia ensiformis (gotani bean)FabaceaeOther
CannaCannaceaeOther
Canna indica (canna lilly)CannaceaeHabitat/association
Cannabis sativa (hemp)CannabaceaeOther
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)SolanaceaeMain
Carica papaya (pawpaw)CaricaceaeMain
Chenopodium album (fat hen)ChenopodiaceaeWild host
Chenopodium murale (nettleleaf goosefoot)ChenopodiaceaeWild host
Chrysanthemum (daisy)AsteraceaeOther
Cichorium (chicory)AsteraceaeOther
Clitoria ternatea (Butterfly-pea)FabaceaeOther
Cocos nucifera (coconut)ArecaceaeHabitat/association
Coffea (coffee)RubiaceaeMain
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee)RubiaceaeMain
Coffea canephora (robusta coffee)RubiaceaeOther
ColocasiaAraceaeOther
Convolvulus arvensis (bindweed)ConvolvulaceaeWild host
Cordia myxa (sebesten)BoraginaceaeOther
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)AgavaceaeOther
Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant)AgavaceaeOther
Coriandrum sativum (coriander)ApiaceaeOther
Cucumis anguria (gerkin)CucurbitaceaeOther
Cucumis melo (melon)CucurbitaceaeOther
Cucumis sativus (cucumber)CucurbitaceaeOther
Cucurbitaceae (cucurbits)CucurbitaceaeMain
Cullen corylifolium (black-dot)FabaceaeOther
Curcuma alismatifoliaZingiberaceaeOther
Curcuma longa (turmeric)ZingiberaceaeOther
Cyperus (flatsedge)CyperaceaeOther
Cyperus haspanCyperaceaeOther
Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge)CyperaceaeWild host
Dahlia coccineaAsteraceaeOther
Datura metel (Hindu datura)SolanaceaeOther
Datura stramonium (jimsonweed)SolanaceaeWild host
Daucus carota (carrot)ApiaceaeOther
Dioscorea (yam)DioscoreaceaeOther
Dioscorea alata (white yam)DioscoreaceaeOther
Dioscorea batatas (Chinese yam)DioscoreaceaeOther
Dioscorea cayenensisDioscoreaceaeHabitat/association
Dioscorea rotundataDioscoreaceaeOther
Duranta erecta (Pigeonberry)VerbenaceaeOther
Emilia sonchifolia (red tasselflower)AsteraceaeWild host
Eragrostis ciliarisPoaceaeOther
Eryngium foetidumApiaceaeOther
Euphorbia prostrataEuphorbiaceaeOther
Euphorbia tirucalli (euphorbia)EuphorbiaceaeOther
Fabaceae (leguminous plants)FabaceaeMain
FicusMoraceaeOther
Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree)MoraceaeOther
Galinsoga parviflora (gallant soldier)AsteraceaeWild host
Gazania (treasure-flower)AsteraceaeOther
GloxiniaGesneriaceaeHabitat/association
Gomphrena globosa (Globe amaranth)AmaranthaceaeOther
Gossypium (cotton)MalvaceaeOther
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)AsteraceaeOther
Hemerocallis (daylilies)LiliaceaeOther
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber)EuphorbiaceaeHabitat/association
Hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf)MalvaceaeMain
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)ConvolvulaceaeOther
Jacquemontia pentanthaConvolvulaceaeOther
Jasminum multiflorum (star jasmine)OleaceaeHabitat/association
Jasminum sambac (arabian jasmine)OleaceaeOther
Juglans (walnuts)JuglandaceaeHabitat/association
Kalanchoe fedtschenkoiCrassulaceaeOther
Lactuca (lettuce)AsteraceaeOther
Lactuca sativa (lettuce)AsteraceaeMain
Lantana camara (lantana)VerbenaceaeOther
Lavandula angustifolia (lavender)LamiaceaeOther
Luffa aegyptiaca (loofah)CucurbitaceaeMain
Malpighia glabra (acerola)MalpighiaceaeOther
Mangifera indica (mango)AnacardiaceaeMain
Manihot esculenta (cassava)EuphorbiaceaeOther
Medicago sativa (lucerne)FabaceaeMain
Melilotus indica (Indian sweetclover)FabaceaeWild host
Mentha spicata (Spear mint)LamiaceaeOther
Momordica charantia (bitter gourd)CucurbitaceaeOther
Morus (mulberrytree)MoraceaeOther
Morus nigra (black mulberry)MoraceaeOther
Musa (banana)MusaceaeOther
Musa x paradisiaca (plantain)MusaceaeOther
Oenanthe javanicaApiaceaeOther
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive)OleaceaeHabitat/association
Oryza sativa (rice)PoaceaeMain
Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed)AsteraceaeHabitat/association
Passiflora edulis (passionfruit)PassifloraceaeOther
Paulownia elongata (elongate paulownia)ScrophulariaceaeOther
Persicaria posumbuPolygonaceaeOther
Phaseolus (beans)FabaceaeMain
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)FabaceaeMain
Phyla nodifloraVerbenaceaeOther
Piper nigrum (black pepper)PiperaceaeOther
Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind)FabaceaeOther
Polianthes tuberosa (tuberose)AgavaceaeUnknown
Pongamia pinnata (Indian beech)FabaceaeOther
Portulaca quadrifida (chickenweed)PortulacaceaeOther
Prosopis juliflora (mesquite)FabaceaeOther
Prunus (stone fruit)RosaceaeOther
Prunus domestica (plum)RosaceaeOther
Prunus persica (peach)RosaceaeOther
Prunus salicina (Japanese plum)RosaceaeMain
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (winged bean)FabaceaeOther
Ptychosperma elegansArecaceaeHabitat/association
Punica granatum (pomegranate)PunicaceaeOther
Radermachera sinicaBignoniaceaeOther
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)LamiaceaeMain
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)PoaceaeOther
Samanea saman (rain tree)FabaceaeMain
Sansevieria trifasciata (mother-in-law’s tongue)AgavaceaeOther
SolanaceaeSolanaceaeMain
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)SolanaceaeMain
Solanum melongena (aubergine)SolanaceaeMain
Solanum nigrum (black nightshade)SolanaceaeWild host
Solanum tuberosum (potato)SolanaceaeOther
Spinacia oleracea (spinach)ChenopodiaceaeOther
Tagetes erecta (African marigold)AsteraceaeOther
Tephrosia vogelii (Vogel's tephrosia)FabaceaeOther
Veitchia merrillii (christmas palm)ArecaceaeHabitat/association
Vigna mungo (black gram)FabaceaeOther
Vigna radiata (mung bean)FabaceaeOther
Viola pilosaViolaceaeOther
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree)LamiaceaeOther
Vitex trifoliaLamiaceaeOther
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)VitaceaeUnknown
Washingtonia robusta (mexican washington-palm)ArecaceaeOther
Xanthosoma (cocoyam)AraceaeOther
Zea mays (maize)PoaceaeOther

Growth Stages

Top of pageFlowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

Top of pageField symptoms are typically of stunted, poorly growing plants with yellowing leaves. Infected root systems show characteristic knots or galls, the severity of which varies with the degree of nematode infection and species and variety of plant parasitized (see Dropkin, 1989).

Symptoms List

Top of page
SignLife StagesType

Leaves

abnormal colours
wilting

Roots

galls along length
reduced root system
swollen roots

Whole plant

dwarfing
early senescence

Biology and Ecology

Top of pageThe life cycles of Meloidogyne spp. are well studied and in their essentials differ little between the major species (De Guiran and Ritter, 1979). At 21°C M. incognita took 37 days to complete its life cycle on Antirrhinum majus, a similar time to that reported on soyabeans (temperatures not published) (Ibrahim and El-Saedy, 1987). Juveniles penetrate root tips, occasionally invading roots in the zone of root elongation. Invaded nematodes initiate the development of giant cells in the meristematic, cortical and xylem tissues of the root and galling of roots occurs. Third- and fourth-stage juveniles and young females occur after about 6-8 and 15 days, respectively. Adult females were observed after 20 days and egg laying commenced after 25 days (Ibrahim and El-Saedy, 1987).

Natural Enemies

Top of page
Natural enemyTypeLife stagesSpecificityReferencesBiological control inBiological control on
Alternaria humicolaPathogen
Arachnula impatiensPathogen
Arthrobotrys amerosporaPredator
Arthrobotrys cladodesPredator
Arthrobotrys conoidesPredator
Arthrobotrys dactyloidesPredator
Arthrobotrys fusiformisPredator
Arthrobotrys irregularisPredator
Arthrobotrys lacdodesPredator
Arthrobotrys musiformisPredator
Arthrobotrys oligosporaPredatorcucumbers
Arthrobotrys vermicolaPredator
Aspergillus nigerAntagonist
Athelia rolfsiiPathogenLarvae
Aureobasidium pullulansAntagonist
Azotobacter chroococcumPathogenIndia
Bacillus cereusPathogen
Bacillus subtilisPathogen
Beauveria bassianaPathogen
Catenaria anguillulaePathogentomatoes
Cochliobolus lunatusPathogen
Cylindrocarpon olidumPathogen
Dactylaria brochophagaPredator
Dactylella lysipagaPredator
Fusarium oxysporumPathogen
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cicerisPathogen
Haematonectria haematococcaPathogen
Harposporium anguillulaeParasite
Harposporium oxysporiumParasite
Hirsutella rhossiliensisPathogen
Hypocrea rufaMycoparasite
Micrococcus luteusPathogen
Monacrosporium cionopagumPredator
Monacrosporium ellipsosporumPredator
Monacrosporium endermataPredator
Monacrosporium fusiformisPredator
Monacrosporium lysifagaPredator
Monacrosporium megalalosporumPredator
Mononchoides fortidensPredator
Mononchoides longicaudatusPredator
Mononchus aquaticusParasite
Myrothecium verrucariaPathogen
Paecilomyces lilacinusParasiteEggsIndia; Puerto Rico
Pasteuria penetransPathogenEcuador
Serratia marcescensPathogen
Streptomyces saraceticusPathogen
Thanatephorus cucumerisPathogen
Vampyrella voraxPathogen
Verticillium chlamydosporiumParasiteEggsUK

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of pageA considerable amount of work has been devoted to the biological control of root-knot nematodes in general and M. incognita in particular (Kerry, 1987). Most research has concentrated on the endoparasitic microorganism Pasteuria penetrans and the egg-parasitic fungus Paecilomyces lilanicus. Experimental work has been encouraging, for example P. penetrans in the control of M. incognita on tomatoes (Sayre, 1980) and P. lilanicus in the control of M. incognita on potatoes (Jatala, 1985). The development of P. lilanicus has reached the stage of multi-local field trials (Jatala, 1985). However, there are considerable problems in the preparation and incorporation of inocula of putative biocontrol agents and the practical application of such technology remains to be developed (Kerry, 1987).

Pathway Vectors

Top of page
VectorNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
Clothing/footwear and possessionsEggs and galls in soil.Yes
Containers and packaging (wood)Yes
Land vehiclesEggs and galls in soil.Yes
Mail/postEggs and galls in soil.Yes
Soil, sand, gravel etc.Eggs and galls in soil.Yes

Plant Trade

Top of page
Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transportPest stagesBorne internallyBorne externallyVisibility of pest or symptoms
Bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Rhizomesadults; eggs; juvenilesYesYesPest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Growing medium accompanying plantsadults; eggs; juvenilesYesYesPest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Rootsadults; eggs; juvenilesYesYesPest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Seedlings, Micropropagated plantsadults; eggs; juvenilesYesYesPest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bark
Flowers, Inflorescences, Cones, Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Stems (above ground), Shoots, Trunks, Branches
True seeds (inc. grain)
Wood

Impact

Top of page Introduction

The root knot nematode species, M. incognita, is the most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world (Sasser, 1979). It occurs as a pest on a very wide range of crops. Most estimates of yield loss come from the use of nematicides and it should be noted that these can possibly cause other beneficial growth effects.

Cotton

The most accurate and detailed estimates of cotton yield losses due to nematodes have been undertaken in states of the USA where nematicides are regularly used. In Arkansas, where M. incognita is by far the most important nematode of cotton, yield losses after the application of nematicides are estimated at 1.5% annually; in South Carolina, M. incognita with other nematodes account for an estimated 5% loss annually (Kirkpatrick, 1988, 1989). In Texas over a 16-year period of field experiments, the average cotton yield increase was 26% when fields infested with M. incognita were fumigated with nematicides. In six Texan counties, where over 47% of field soils were infested with M. incognita, it was calculated that the total annual yield loss was 10.2% or 85,600 cotton bales (Orr and Robinson, 1984). Disease complexes involving M. incognita and vascular Fusarium wilt on cotton are well recognized. Where the two organisms occur together, increasing the nematode population has a greater effect on wilt incidence and cotton yield loss than an increase in the Fusarium population (Starr et al., 1989; Hillocks and Bridge, 1992; Hillocks, 1997).

Tobacco

Root knot nematodes, mainly M. incognita and M. javanica, are always pests of economic importance in tobacco culture, wherever the climate favours them (Barker et al., 1981; Shepherd and Barker, 1990). In North America, losses to tobacco from root knot nematodes, mainly M. incognita, have been estimated to range from 1% to 14% annually in areas where control measures are the norm (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). Root knot nematodes, probably M. incognita, have been estimated to cause 50 to 60% yield losses in parts of Turkey and losses of 25% from field infestation and 50% if the infestation started in the seedbed in India (Shepherd and Barker, 1990). The percentage loss in tobacco yield is estimated to be 8 to 9% for each ten-fold increase in the initial population of M. incognita (Barker et al., 1981). In Cuba, in the region where the highest quality tobacco for cigars is produced, the losses due to M. incognita are estimated at 27.5% of the crop potential of flue-cured tobacco (Garcia and Perez, 1987; Fernandez and Ortega, 1998).

Food Legumes

M. incognita is a major economic pest of food legumes in the tropics and subtropics (Sikora and Greco, 1990). Moderate soil populations of 1000 nematodes per plant in pathogenicity pot experiments can reduce pod yields of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) by 27% and very high soil populations of 10,000 per plant reduce pod yields by 87%. In M. incognita-infested field plots treated with nematicides, yield of chickpea can increase by 15 to 33% (Reddy, 1976). Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is very badly damaged by Meloidogyne species in the tropics. Significant bean yield increases of 45 to 60% have been achieved in Kenya by reducing mixed soil populations of M. incognita and M. javanica with the application of nematicides (Ngundo and Taylor, 1974). Similarly in Peru and Colombia, in fields infested with mixed populations of Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita, common bean seed yield can be reduced by 26 to 63% depending on the bean cultivar grown and other factors (Mullin et al., 1991). M. incognita is a serious pest of Phaseolus vulgaris in the USA where there is a reduction of 66% in crop value in fields where the nematodes are not controlled. The reduced crop value is a result of a combination of reduced plant stands and a 27% lower average pod production by surviving plants (Smittle and Johnson, 1982). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is another very susceptible host crop of M. incognita. In Nigerian soils where M. incognita is the predominant nematode parasite, application of nematicides can increase cowpea yields by 95 to 222% (Babatola and Omotade, 1991). Soyabean (Glycine max) is another legume severely damaged by root knot nematodes and in Brazil yield can be reduced by over 55% in the presence of M. incognita (Antonio, 1988). In India, nematicide application to farmers' fields infested with a mixture of M. incognita and Rotylenchulus reniformis increased yield of soyabean by 19% (Prasad, 1999).

Vegetables

M. incognita is a major pest of vegetables throughout the tropics and subtropics. Many crops grown as vegetables are susceptible to the nematode particularly tomato, aubergine, okra, cucumber, melon, carrot, gourds, lettuce and peppers. Estimates of vegetable crop losses due Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita and M. javanica, have ranged from 17 to 20% for aubergine (Solanum melongena), 18 to 33% for melon and 24 to 38% for tomato (Sasser, 1979). In India, yield losses of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), tomato and aubergine field crops are estimated at 91%, 42 to 54% and 18%, respectively (Bhatti and Jain, 1977; Subramaniyan et al., 1990). Other trials in India using nematicides showed that in fields naturally infested with mixed populations of M. incognita and M. javanica the avoidable yield losses in peas, okra, tomato and bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) crops is 46% to 56% (Sharma and Baheti, 1992).

Yams

The primary damage to yams (Dioscorea species) by M. incognita is in the reduction in quality and marketability of the tubers due to the extensive surface galling caused by the root knot nematodes (Jatala and Bridge, 1990). It is estimated that there is a reduction of 39 to 52% in the price of galled tubers compared with healthy ones (Nwauzor and Fawole, 1982). However, there are instances were the nematode is known to actually reduce yields, for example in Nigeria significant yield reduction can occur in D. alata due to M. incognita (Adesiyan and Odihirin, 1978). In Martinique, M. incognita is reported to have completely destroyed a crop of the yam D. trifida (Kermarrec, 1974). In India, pot experiments have demonstrated that even low nematode populations of 100 M. incognita juveniles per plant can cause a highly significant reduction in yam (D. rotundata) tuber weights of 27% and larger nematode populations over 55% yield loss (Mohandas and Ramakrishnan, 1997).

Potatoes

Losses of potatoes due to Meloidogyne species, mainly M. incognita, are estimated at 25% or more (Mai et al., 1981).

Spices

M. incognita is an important pest of black pepper (Piper nigrum) in many countries particularly in Brazil and India where infestation levels of over 90% have been reported (Koshy and Bridge, 1990). As few as 10 juveniles per plant can reduce black pepper growth by 16% under potted conditions (Koshy et al., 1979). Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) suffers yield losses of 32 to 47% in the presence of M. incognita in India (Ali, 1986). In Australia, M. incognita and M. javanica are pests of ginger and severe infestation of rhizomes can reduce yields by 57% (Pegg et al., 1974). In pot experiments, a reduction of 74% in ginger rhizome weight has been recorded with initial M. incognita soil populations of 10,000 nematodes (Sukumaran and Sundararaju, 1986).

Coffee

M. incognita is found in many coffee-growing areas in the world but it is in Brazil where its effects have been the most catastrophic. In Brazil, the nematode has caused the complete destruction of coffee plantations and resulted in major agricultural changes as farmers were forced to adopt alternative crops (Campos et al., 1990).

Diagnosis

Top of pageGeneral identification of root-knot nematode infestation can be conducted by competent nematologists with basic equipment. Identification of species within the genus Meloidogyne requires the services of specialized taxonomists. In addition to classical taxonomic techniques, biochemical methods are also being developed (Esbenshade and Triantaphyllou, 1985). The situation regarding M. incognita is complicated by the existence of morphologically indistinguishable races differentiated by their ability to reproduce on a range of test host plants (Hartman and Sasser, 1985).

Detection and Inspection

Top of pageAbove-ground symptoms are non-specific (see Symptoms): examination of roots can reveal the presence of swollen roots and galls. Closer examination, for example with a hand lens, can show the presence of egg masses on the root surface.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of pageMeloidogyne incognita is similar to other species of Meloidogyne. Confusion within this group is common as the characters used tend to be variable.

Prevention and Control

Top of pageMethods for the control of M. incognita vary with the production system used and the value of the crop. Chemical control may be used on high-value crops, and a wide range of chemicals are available (Johnson, 1985a; Hague and Gowen, 1987). Strategies of cultural control are less well developed and crop rotations are difficult to design because of the wide host range of M. incognita. Groundnuts or maize, which are both poor or non-hosts to M. incognita, have been evaluated for use in cropping systems designed to manage this nematode (Raymundo, 1985). Systems of integrating cropping sequences and chemical control have been evaluated in the USA (Johnson, 1985b). Resistance to M. incognita exists in a number of commercial crop varieties, principally vegetables (Lehman and Cochran, 1991). These have generally been developed in the USA, but have been evaluated in other parts of the world (for example, see Krishnappa, 1985).

References

Top of page

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Moens MG, 1985. Disinfestation of tomato nurseries. International Nematology Network Newsletter, 2(2):14-15.

Mohandas C, Ramakrishnan S, 1997. Pathogenic effect of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on African white yam, Dioscorea rotundata. Indian Journal of Nematology, 27(2):233-236.

Moura RMde, Regina MDGC, Silva-Lima STda, Costa MBda, Ribeiro ARS, 2010. First report of root-knot nematode on Yam 'São Tomé' in Brazil. Nematologia Brasileira, 34(3):178-180. http://docentes.esalq.usp.br/sbn/nbonline/online.htm

Mullin BA, Abawi GS, Pastor-Corrales MA, Kornegay JL, 1991. Root-knot nematodes associated with beans in Colombia and Peru and related yield loss. Plant Disease, 75(12):1208-1211

Murga-Gutierrez SN, Colagiero M, Rosso LC, Sialer MMF, Ciancio A, 2012. Root-knot nematodes from asparagus and associated biological antagonists in Peru. Nematropica, 42(1):57-62. http://journals.fcla.edu/nematropica/article/view/79582/76900

Nasira K, Shaheen N, Shahina F, 2011. Root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita wartellei on pomegranate in Swat, KPK, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 29(1):117-118.

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Ngundo BW, Taylor DP, 1974. Effects of Meloidogyne spp. on bean yields in Kenya. Plant Disease Reporter, 58(11):1020-1023

Nishizawa T, 1978. Annual population changes of soil nematodes in the field of continuous cropping or rotation. Kasetsart Journal, 12(1):3-13

Nwauzor EC, Fawole B, 1982. Root-knot nematodes on yams in eastern Nigeria. Proceedings of the 3rd Research Planning Conference on root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp., Regions IV and V, 16-20 November 1981, Ibadan, Nigeria. (International Meloidogyne Project). International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Ibadania Niger, 161-167

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Distribution Maps

Top of page
Distribution map Antigua and Barbuda: Present
Walker et al., 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002Albania: Restricted distribution
Shepherd & Barker, 1990Armenia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Armenia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Angola: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Argentina: Widespread
Doucet & Pinochet, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002American Samoa: Present
Brooks, 2002; CABI/EPPO, 2002Australia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Australia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryBosnia-Hercegovina: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Barbados: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Barbados: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bangladesh: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Belgium: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Burkina Faso: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bulgaria: Restricted distribution
Stoyanov, 1980; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Bermuda: Widespread
Wang & Hughes, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002Brunei Darussalam: Present
Reddy, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Bolivia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Brazil: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Brazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBelarus: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Belize: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Belize: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Canada: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Canada
See regional map for distribution within the countrySwitzerland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Côte d'Ivoire: Present
Fortuner, 1981; CABI/EPPO, 2002Chile: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Cameroon: Present
Price, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002China: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002China: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002China
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryColombia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Colombia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Costa Rica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; Lopez, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Costa Rica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; Lopez, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Cuba: Widespread
Cuadra et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Rivas & Gandarilla, 2012Cuba: Widespread
Cuadra et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Rivas & Gandarilla, 2012Cyprus: Restricted distribution
Philis, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2002Cyprus: Restricted distribution
Philis, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2002Czech Republic: Present
Tesarová et al., 2003Germany: Restricted distribution
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Dominica: Present
Hunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Dominican Republic: Widespread
Roman & Grullon, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Dominican Republic: Widespread
Roman & Grullon, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Algeria: Present
Scotto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002Algeria: Present
Scotto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ecuador: Widespread
Velastegui & Fiallos, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Estonia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Egypt: Widespread
Ibrahim et al., 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ibrahim & Handoo, 2016Spain: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013Spain: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013Spain
See regional map for distribution within the countryEthiopia: Present
Sharma & McDonald, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Fiji: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002France: Widespread
Gautier, 1975; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002UK: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002UK
See regional map for distribution within the countryGeorgia (Republic of): Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Georgia (Republic of): Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002French Guiana: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Ghana: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Gambia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guinea: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guadeloupe: Widespread
Kermarrec, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002Greece: Restricted distribution
Kyrou, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Tzortzakakis et al., 2011Greece: Restricted distribution
Kyrou, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Tzortzakakis et al., 2011Greece
See regional map for distribution within the countryGreece
See regional map for distribution within the countryGuatemala: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guatemala: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guyana: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guyana: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Honduras: Widespread
Pinochet, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Honduras: Widespread
Pinochet, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Haiti: Widespread
Crill et al., 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002Haiti: Widespread
Crill et al., 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002Hungary: Restricted distribution
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; Amin & Budai, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Indonesia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Indonesia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Indonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIsrael: Widespread
Orion et al., 1982; Tarjan, 1953; CABI/EPPO, 2002Israel: Widespread
Orion et al., 1982; Tarjan, 1953; CABI/EPPO, 2002India: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002India
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIraq: Present
Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iraq: Present
Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iraq: Present
Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iran: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013Iran: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013Iran: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013Iceland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Iceland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Italy: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; d'Errico et al., 2014Italy
See regional map for distribution within the countryItaly
See regional map for distribution within the countryJamaica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jamaica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jordan: Present
Hashim, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jordan: Present
Hashim, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002Japan: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Japan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryKenya: Present
Kanyagia, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Karuri et al., 2017Kiribati: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Korea, Republic of: Present
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Kazakhstan: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Kazakhstan: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Lebanon: Widespread
Saad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Lebanon: Widespread
Saad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Lebanon: Widespread
Saad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Saint Lucia: Widespread, introduced, invasive
Hunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Sri Lanka: Widespread
Sivapalan, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Liberia: Widespread
Lamberti et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Lithuania: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Latvia: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Libya: Widespread
Khan & Dabaj, 1980; Dabaj & Jenser, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Morocco: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Morocco: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Moldova: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Montenegro: Present
Pajovic et al., 2007Madagascar: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Macedonia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Myanmar: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Mongolia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Martinique: Present
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mauritania: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Montserrat: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Malta: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Malta: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Mauritius: Widespread
Lamberti et al., 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Malawi: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mexico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Martínez et al., 2014Mexico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Martínez et al., 2014Malaysia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Malaysia
See regional map for distribution within the countryMalaysia
See regional map for distribution within the countryMalaysia
See regional map for distribution within the countryMozambique: Present
Oever & Mangane, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002New Caledonia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Niger: Widespread
Sikora et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Norfolk Island: Present
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nigeria: Widespread
Adesiyan & Odihirin, 1978; Babatola, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nicaragua: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nicaragua: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nicaragua: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Netherlands: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Nepal: Widespread
Bhardwaj & Hogger, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Niue: Present
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002New Zealand: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Oman: Present
Waller & Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Oman: Present
Waller & Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Panama: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Panama: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Peru: Present
Vargas & Pajuelo, 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Murga-Gutierrez et al., 2012Papua New Guinea: Widespread
Powell, 1974; Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Papua New Guinea: Widespread
Powell, 1974; Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Philippines: Present
Madamba, 1981; Timm, 1965; CABI/EPPO, 2002Philippines: Present
Madamba, 1981; Timm, 1965; CABI/EPPO, 2002Pakistan: Present
Qureshi et al., 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Hussain et al., 2015Poland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Puerto Rico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Puerto Rico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Portugal: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Portugal
See regional map for distribution within the countryParaguay: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Réunion: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Romania: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Serbia: Present
Bacic et al., 2016Russian Federation: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Russian Federation: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Russian Federation
See regional map for distribution within the countryRussian Federation
See regional map for distribution within the countryRussian Federation
See regional map for distribution within the countryRussian Federation
See regional map for distribution within the countryRussian Federation
See regional map for distribution within the countrySaudi Arabia: Widespread
Eissa & Hyder, 1981; Eissa, 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Saudi Arabia: Widespread
Eissa & Hyder, 1981; Eissa, 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Solomon Islands: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Seychelles: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Sudan: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Singapore: Present
AVA, 2001; CABI/EPPO, 2002Slovenia: Present
Sirca et al., 2003Slovakia: Present
Tesarová et al., 2003Senegal: Widespread
Taylor, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Somalia: Restricted distribution
Karshe, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2002Suriname: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Suriname: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002El Salvador: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002El Salvador: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Syria: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Syria: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Syria: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Thailand: Present
Chunram, 1972; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ruanpanun & Khun-in, 2015Tajikistan: Present
Dzhuraeva, 1976; Teben'kova, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkmenistan: Widespread
Shagalina & Shagalin, 1987; Artyunov, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tunisia: Restricted distribution
Moens, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tunisia: Restricted distribution
Moens, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tonga: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkey: Present
Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkey: Present
Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkey: Present
Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Trinidad and Tobago: Widespread
Bala, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Trinidad and Tobago: Widespread
Bala, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tuvalu: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Taiwan: Present
Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Taiwan: Present
Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tanzania: Widespread
Ahmed, 1975; Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ukraine: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Ukraine: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Uganda: Widespread
Bridge et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002USA: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002USA: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002USA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUruguay: Present
Alvarez, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Uzbekistan: Widespread
Mavlyanov, 1972; Khurramov, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: Widespread
Hunt, 1977; Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Venezuela: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Venezuela: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Vietnam: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Vanuatu: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Samoa: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Yemen: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Yemen: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Yugoslavia (former): Present
Grujicic, 1974Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002South Africa: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Zambia: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Congo Democratic Republic: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Zimbabwe: Widespread
Martin & Armstrong, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
  • = Present, no further details
  • = Evidence of pathogen
  • = Widespread
  • = Last reported
  • = Localised
  • = Presence unconfirmed
  • = Confined and subject to quarantine
  • = See regional map for distribution within the country
  • = Occasional or few reports
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Distribution map (asia) Armenia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bangladesh: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Brunei Darussalam: Present
Reddy, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002China: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Anhui: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Fujian: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Guangdong: Present
Wu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Guangxi: Present
Wu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Guizhou: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Hainan: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Hubei: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Hebei: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Heilongjiang: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Henan: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Hunan: Present
Wu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jiangsu: Present
Shen et al., 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jiangxi: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nei Menggu: Present
Zhang et al., 1998; CABI/EPPO, 2002Qinghai: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Sichuan: Present
Chen et al., 1991; Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Shandong: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Shaanxi: Present
Li et al., 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002Yunnan: Present
Yang et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Zhejiang: Present
Wu & Xue, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Georgia (Republic of): Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Indonesia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Java: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Sumatra: Widespread
Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Israel: Widespread
Orion et al., 1982; Tarjan, 1953; CABI/EPPO, 2002India: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Widespread
Salam, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Andhra Pradesh: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Arunachal Pradesh: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Assam: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Bihar: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Chandigarh: Widespread
Mathur & Khera, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Chhattisgarh: Present
Sahu et al., 2011Delhi: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Gujarat: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Himachal Pradesh: Restricted distribution
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Haryana: Present
Haryana, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jammu and Kashmir: Present
Bhat & Kaul, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Singh & Gupta, 2011Kerala: Widespread
Raveendran & Nadakal, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Karnataka: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Maharashtra: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Meghalaya: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Manipur: Present
Mishra, 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Madhya Pradesh: Widespread
Tiwari & Dave, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Odisha: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Indian Punjab: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Harish et al., 2015Rajasthan: Present
Mathur et al., 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Sikkim: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Tamil Nadu: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tripura: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Uttar Pradesh: Present
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Anamika, & Sobita, 2010Uttarakhand: Present
Rathour et al., 2006West Bengal: Widespread
Prasad &, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iraq: Present
Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iran: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013Jordan: Present
Hashim, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002Japan: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Hokkaido: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Honshu: Widespread
Saigusa & Matsumoto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002Kyushu: Present
Araki & Nakasono, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ryukyu Archipelago: Present
Fukudome, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Shikoku: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Korea, Republic of: Present
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Kazakhstan: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Lebanon: Widespread
Saad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Sri Lanka: Widespread
Sivapalan, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Myanmar: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Mongolia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Malaysia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Peninsular Malaysia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Sabah: Present
Liu, 1977; Liu, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Sarawak: Present
Sarawak, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nepal: Widespread
Bhardwaj & Hogger, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Oman: Present
Waller & Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Papua New Guinea: Widespread
Powell, 1974; Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Philippines: Present
Madamba, 1981; Timm, 1965; CABI/EPPO, 2002Pakistan: Present
Qureshi et al., 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Hussain et al., 2015Russian Federation: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Saudi Arabia: Widespread
Eissa & Hyder, 1981; Eissa, 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Singapore: Present
AVA, 2001; CABI/EPPO, 2002Syria: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Thailand: Present
Chunram, 1972; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ruanpanun & Khun-in, 2015Tajikistan: Present
Dzhuraeva, 1976; Teben'kova, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkmenistan: Widespread
Shagalina & Shagalin, 1987; Artyunov, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkey: Present
Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Taiwan: Present
Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ukraine: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Uzbekistan: Widespread
Mavlyanov, 1972; Khurramov, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Vietnam: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Yemen: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002
Distribution map (europe) Albania: Restricted distribution
Shepherd & Barker, 1990Armenia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bosnia-Hercegovina: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Belgium: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bulgaria: Restricted distribution
Stoyanov, 1980; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Belarus: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Switzerland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Cyprus: Restricted distribution
Philis, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2002Czech Republic: Present
Tesarová et al., 2003Germany: Restricted distribution
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Algeria: Present
Scotto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002Estonia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Spain: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013France: Widespread
Gautier, 1975; Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002UK: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Scotland: Present
Tesarová et al., 2003Georgia (Republic of): Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Greece: Restricted distribution
Kyrou, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Tzortzakakis et al., 2011Crete: Present
Tzortzakakis et al., 2016Hungary: Restricted distribution
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; Amin & Budai, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iraq: Present
Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iran: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013Iceland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Italy: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; d'Errico et al., 2014Sicily: Present
Colombo et al., 2008Kazakhstan: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Lebanon: Widespread
Saad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Lithuania: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Latvia: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Morocco: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Moldova: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Montenegro: Present
Pajovic et al., 2007Macedonia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Malta: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Netherlands: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Poland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Portugal: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Azores: Present
Vovlas et al., 2004Romania: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Serbia: Present
Bacic et al., 2016Russian Federation: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Central Russia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Russian Far East: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Northern Russia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Southern Russia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Western Siberia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Slovenia: Present
Sirca et al., 2003Slovakia: Present
Tesarová et al., 2003Syria: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Tunisia: Restricted distribution
Moens, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkey: Present
Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ukraine: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Yugoslavia (former): Present
Grujicic, 1974Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002
Distribution map (africa) Angola: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Burkina Faso: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Côte d'Ivoire: Present
Fortuner, 1981; CABI/EPPO, 2002Cameroon: Present
Price, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Cyprus: Restricted distribution
Philis, 1983; CABI/EPPO, 2002Algeria: Present
Scotto, 1961; CABI/EPPO, 2002Egypt: Widespread
Ibrahim et al., 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Ibrahim & Handoo, 2016Spain: Widespread
Shepherd & Barker, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002; López-Robles et al., 2013Canary Islands: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Ethiopia: Present
Sharma & McDonald, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ghana: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Gambia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guinea: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Greece: Restricted distribution
Kyrou, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Tzortzakakis et al., 2011Crete: Present
Tzortzakakis et al., 2016Israel: Widespread
Orion et al., 1982; Tarjan, 1953; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iraq: Present
Katcho, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iran: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Bahmani et al., 2013Sicily: Present
Colombo et al., 2008Jordan: Present
Hashim, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002Kenya: Present
Kanyagia, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Karuri et al., 2017Lebanon: Widespread
Saad & Tanveer, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Liberia: Widespread
Lamberti et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Libya: Widespread
Khan & Dabaj, 1980; Dabaj & Jenser, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Morocco: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Madagascar: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mauritania: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Malta: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Mauritius: Widespread
Lamberti et al., 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002Malawi: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mozambique: Present
Oever & Mangane, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002Niger: Widespread
Sikora et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Nigeria: Widespread
Adesiyan & Odihirin, 1978; Babatola, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002Oman: Present
Waller & Bridge, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Réunion: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Saudi Arabia: Widespread
Eissa & Hyder, 1981; Eissa, 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Seychelles: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Sudan: Restricted distribution
CABI/EPPO, 2002Senegal: Widespread
Taylor, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Somalia: Restricted distribution
Karshe, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 2002Syria: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Tunisia: Restricted distribution
Moens, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Turkey: Present
Bora, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tanzania: Widespread
Ahmed, 1975; Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Uganda: Widespread
Bridge et al., 1991; CABI/EPPO, 2002Yemen: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002South Africa: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Zambia: Widespread
Keetch & Buckley, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Congo Democratic Republic: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Zimbabwe: Widespread
Martin & Armstrong, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Distribution map (north america) Bermuda: Widespread
Wang & Hughes, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002Belize: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Canada: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Ontario: Present
Johnson & Potter, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002Cuba: Widespread
Cuadra et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Rivas & Gandarilla, 2012Dominican Republic: Widespread
Roman & Grullon, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Guatemala: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Honduras: Widespread
Pinochet, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Haiti: Widespread
Crill et al., 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002Iceland: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Jamaica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mexico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Martínez et al., 2014Nicaragua: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Puerto Rico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002El Salvador: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002USA: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Alabama: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Arkansas: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Arizona: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002California: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Connecticut: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Florida: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Georgia: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Hawaii: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Illinois: Restricted distribution
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Indiana: Restricted distribution
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Kansas: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Kentucky: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Louisiana: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Maryland: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Missouri: Present
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mississippi: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002North Carolina: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002New Mexico: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002New York: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Oklahoma: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Oregon: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Pennsylvania: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002South Carolina: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tennessee: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Texas: Widespread
Taylor et al., 1982; Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Utah: Present
Campbell & Griffin, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Virginia: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Washington: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002West Virginia: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002
Distribution map (central america) Antigua and Barbuda: Present
Walker et al., 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002Barbados: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Belize: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Colombia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Costa Rica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; Lopez, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Cuba: Widespread
Cuadra et al., 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Rivas & Gandarilla, 2012Dominica: Present
Hunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Dominican Republic: Widespread
Roman & Grullon, 1975; CABI/EPPO, 2002Guadeloupe: Widespread
Kermarrec, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002Guatemala: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guyana: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Honduras: Widespread
Pinochet, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Haiti: Widespread
Crill et al., 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002Jamaica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Saint Lucia: Widespread, introduced, invasive
Hunt, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Martinique: Present
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Montserrat: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Mexico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Martínez et al., 2014Nicaragua: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Panama: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Puerto Rico: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Suriname: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002El Salvador: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Trinidad and Tobago: Widespread
Bala, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002USA: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Florida: Widespread
Walters & Barker, 1994; CABI/EPPO, 2002Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: Widespread
Hunt, 1977; Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Venezuela: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002
Distribution map (south america) Argentina: Widespread
Doucet & Pinochet, 1992; CABI/EPPO, 2002Barbados: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bolivia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Brazil: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Bahia: Widespread
Freire & Ponte, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ceara: Widespread
Ponte, 1968; CABI/EPPO, 2002Espirito Santo: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Goias: Widespread
Lordello et al., 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Maranhao: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Minas Gerais: Widespread
Freire & Ferraz, 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Mato Grosso do Sul: Widespread
Lordello & Marini, 1974; Tihohod & Ferraz, 1986; CABI/EPPO, 2002Para: Widespread
Freire, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002Paraiba: Widespread
Lopes & Lordello, 1980; CABI/EPPO, 2002Pernambuco: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Parana: Widespread
Santos & Silva, 1984; Lordello & Lordello, 1972; CABI/EPPO, 2002Rio de Janeiro: Widespread
Goes et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Rio Grande do Norte: Present
Ponte et al., 1977; CABI/EPPO, 2002Rio Grande do Sul: Widespread
Lordello & Marini, 1974; CABI/EPPO, 2002Santa Catarina: Widespread
Kalvelage & Brose, 1990; CABI/EPPO, 2002Sao Paulo: Widespread
Curi & Silveira, 1978; CABI/EPPO, 2002Chile: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Colombia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Costa Rica: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; Lopez, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Ecuador: Widespread
Velastegui & Fiallos, 1987; CABI/EPPO, 2002French Guiana: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Guyana: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Nicaragua: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Panama: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Peru: Present
Vargas & Pajuelo, 1973; CABI/EPPO, 2002; Murga-Gutierrez et al., 2012Paraguay: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Suriname: Widespread
Sosa, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 2002Trinidad and Tobago: Widespread
Bala, 1984; CABI/EPPO, 2002Uruguay: Present
Alvarez, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 2002Venezuela: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002
Distribution map (pacific) American Samoa: Present
Brooks, 2002; CABI/EPPO, 2002Australia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Australian Northern Territory: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002; Singh et al., 2012New South Wales: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Queensland: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002South Australia: Widespread
Stirling, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tasmania: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Victoria: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Western Australia: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002China: Widespread
CABI/EPPO, 2002Fiji: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Indonesia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Kiribati: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002New Caledonia: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Norfolk Island: Present
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Niue: Present
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002New Zealand: Present
CABI/EPPO, 2002Papua New Guinea: Widespread
Powell, 1974; Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Philippines: Present
Madamba, 1981; Timm, 1965; CABI/EPPO, 2002Solomon Islands: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tonga: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Tuvalu: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Taiwan: Present
Taylor et al., 1982; CABI/EPPO, 2002Vanuatu: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002Samoa: Widespread
Bridge, 1988; CABI/EPPO, 2002