Ficus benghalensis (banyan)

Pictures

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Title Habit Caption Ficus benghalensis (banyan); habit, showing aerial roots. Cable Company buildings, Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii, USA. June 2008. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Ficus benghalensis (banyan); habit, showing aerial roots. Cable Company buildings, Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii, USA. June 2008.	©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Ficus benghalensis (banyan); habit of mature tree. Copyright ©K.M. Siddiqui	Habit	Ficus benghalensis (banyan); habit of mature tree.	©K.M. Siddiqui
Title Branches and aerial roots Caption Ficus benghalensis (banyan); branches and aerial roots. Copyright ©K.M. Siddiqui	Branches and aerial roots	Ficus benghalensis (banyan); branches and aerial roots.	©K.M. Siddiqui
Title Leaves and fruit Caption Ficus benghalensis (banyan); leaves and fruit. Copyright ©K.M. Siddiqui	Leaves and fruit	Ficus benghalensis (banyan); leaves and fruit.	©K.M. Siddiqui

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Ficus benghalensis L.

Preferred Common Name

• banyan

Variety

• Ficus benghalensis var. benghalensis

Other Scientific Names

• Ficus banyana Oken
• Ficus chauvieri G.Nicholson
• Ficus cotoneifolia Vahl
• Ficus cotonifolia Stokes
• Ficus indica L.
• Ficus karet Baill.
• Ficus krishnae C.DC.
• Ficus lancifolia Moench
• Ficus lasiophylla Link
• Ficus procera Salisb.
• Ficus pubescens B.Heyne ex Roth
• Ficus umbrosa Salisb.
• Urostigma benghalense (L.) Gasp.

International Common Names

• English: banyan fig; banyan tree; east Indian fig; Indian banyan
• Spanish: higuera
• French: figuier banyan; figuier d'Inde
• Portuguese: figueira-banyan; figueira-bargá

Local Common Names

• Bahamas: banyan tree
• Germany: Banyanbaum, Indischer; Feigenbaum, Würg-
• India: al; alam; bahupada; bar; baraged; barh; bat; bot; mawi; peepal; vad
• Indonesia: beringin
• Malaysia: ara tandok; bohdi
• Myanmar: pyi-nyaung
• Pakistan: bar; barged; barh; peepal
• Thailand: krang; ni khrot

EPPO code

• FIUBG (Ficus benghalensis)

Summary of Invasiveness

F. benghalensis is a large, fast growing, evergreen tree that has been widely introduced across tropical and subtropical areas of the world. It has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized in natural and disturbed areas (Rojo et al., 1999; Starr et al., 2003). F. benghalensis produces large numbers of seeds which can be dispersed by both native and exotic birds. F. benghalensis trees begin growing on other trees as epiphytes and they eventually mature, completely killing the host-tree (Starr et al., 2003). To date, F. benghalensis is listed as invasive in the Bahamas, Australia, Singapore, Western Samoa, and the Chagos Islands (Whistler, 1996; Chong et al., 2009; Smith, 2010; PIER, 2014). 

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Urticales
•                         Family: Moraceae
•                             Genus: Ficus
•                                 Species: Ficus benghalensis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The Moraceae are monoecious or dioecious trees, shrubs, climbers, stranglers, and rarely herbs comprising about 39 genera and 1125 species distributed mostly in tropical to warm temperate regions (Stevens, 2012; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014). Nearly all species within this family contain milky latex and have alternate or opposite leaves and small, unisexual, and minute flowers (Wilmott-Dear and Brummitt, 2007). The genus Ficus includes about 750 species of trees, shrubs, climbers, and hemiepiphytic stranglers with Pantropical distribution (Wagner et al., 1999; Stevens, 2012). These species are recognized by a specialized inflorescence and pollination syndrome (Weiblen, 2000).

The common name banyan comes from India, where early travellers observed that the shade of the tree was frequented by banias or Indian traders. 

Description

F. benghalensis is a large, evergreen to deciduous tree, up to 20 (-25) m tall, with wide leafy crown and branches spreading up to 100 m or more with pillar-like prop roots and accessory trunks. Trunk massive, fluted, bark grey, smooth, young softly white puberulous. Leaves with stout, (1.5-) 2-6 (-8) cm long, ventrally compressed hairy petiole; lamina coriaceous, ovate or obovate to elliptic, (8-) 10-20 (-25) cm long, (6-) 8-15 (20) cm broad, glabrous above, finely pubescent beneath, base subcordate or rounded, margins apically obtuse, lateral nerves 4-7 pairs, intercostals distinct, ± bulging stipules coriaceous, stout, 1.5-2.5 cm long, acute; cystoliths abundant on side, few or absent below. Hypanthodia sessile, in axillary pairs on young depressed-globose, 15-2 cm in diameter, green, hairy, subtended by 3, reniform c. 3-4 mm long, c. 6-7 mm wide, minutely hairy basal bracts, apical orifice by 3, flat or ± umbonate bracts, internal bristles absent. Male flowers: numerous ostiolar, shortly pedicellate; sepals 2-3; stamen solitary, with shortly mucronate anther. Female flowers: sessile, mixed with gall flowers; sepals 34, small; ovary with an elongated style. Gall flowers numerous, pedicellate; sepal as in female ovary with a short style. Figs globose to depressed-globose, 15-2.5 cm in diameter pinkish-red, hairy (Flora of Pakistan, 2014). 

Plant Type

Distribution

F. benghalensis is considered native to tropical Asia, from India through Myanmar, Thailand, southern China, and Malaysia. It is also cultivated and naturalized in many tropical regions of the world including western Africa, North America, the West Indies, Australia, the Middle East, and many islands in the Pacific ocean (see distribution table for details; Rojo et al., 1999; PIER, 2014; PROTA, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014). 

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

F. benghalensis has been widely introduced and cultivated in the tropics (Rojo et al., 1999; Starr et al., 2003). In Florida, seedlings were first observed in Miami in 1986 (Stange and Knight 1987). For Australia, the oldest herbarium collection was dated in 1899 (Atlas of Living Australia, 2014). 

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction of F. benghalensis is moderate. Ficus species have one of the most complex pollination systems in which each Ficus species needs a specific wasp species in order to pollinate its flowers, set fruits, and spread into new habitats. Therefore, this complex pollination system minimizes the chance for this species to spread out following deliberate introduction (Starr et al., 2003). 

Habitat

F. benghalensis grows from low altitudes to 600 metres principally in monsoon and rain forests. However, it is drought resistant and withstands mild frost (Oudhia 2004). In the Bahamas it is cultivated but occasionally escapes to coppiced forest areas (Smith, 2010). In Australia, it can be found in mixed eucalypt woodland with monsoon scrub species (Chew, 1989). 

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number reported for F. benghalensis is 2n = 26 (Ohri and Khoshoo, 1987).

Reproductive Biology

The pollination system occurring in Ficus species is one of the most complex within flowering plants. In this system, each fig tree species is obligatorily pollinated by one fig wasp species, and each wasp species can only reproduce in one fig species (Ramirez, 1974; Rasplus, 1996).

Longevity

F. benghalensis is a woody tree with long life span (i.e., >100yrs) that can attain large dimensions (perimeters >800 metres; Munshi et al., 2004).

Environmental Requirements

F. benghalensis grows best in wet habitats on well-draining sandy loam soils, but it is drought-resistant (Starr et al., 2003). 

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rain Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline
• shallow

Means of Movement and Dispersal

F. benghalensis spreads by seeds, but it can also be propagated from cuttings or transplanting young trees (Starr et al., 2003; Smith, 2010; PROTA, 2014). Seeds can remain up to two years in open storage at room temperature (PROTA, 2014). 

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Environmental Impact

F. benghalensis is a fast-growing tree with the potential to invade both disturbed and native ecosystems. This species is capable of germinating in native host trees, where it grows as an epiphyte, eventually killing the host-trees. The root system can damage buildings and sidewalks. The tree can also germinate in fence-posts, rocks, bridges, buildings, and other structures, eventually engulfing the hosts (Starr et al., 2003; PIER, 2014; PROTA, 2014). 

Social Impact

The foliage and milky sap of all Ficus species may be an irritant to skin and eyes (Starr et al., 2003; PROTA, 2014). 

Risk and Impact Factors

Impact mechanisms

• Causes allergic responses
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - smothering
• Competition - strangling
• Rapid growth
• Rooting

Impact outcomes

• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Host damage
• Infrastructure damage
• Modification of successional patterns
• Reduced native biodiversity

Invasiveness

• Abundant in its native range
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Fast growing
• Has a broad native range
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Highly mobile locally
• Is a habitat generalist
• Long lived
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Reproduces asexually
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc

Likelihood of entry/control

• Difficult/costly to control
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

F. benghalensis is often planted as an ornamental. The bark, leaves, root-fibres, and milky juice (latex) are used in the preparation of traditional medicines. The tree is also planted for soil conservation, timber and pulp paper. The leaf is used in the preparation of fodder. It is also cultivated as a shade tree along streets, in parks and gardens, and grown as a host plant for lac insects. The fruit is edible, but is eaten only in famine times (Rojo et al., 1999; Oudhia 2004; Smith, 2010; PIER, 2014; PROTA, 2014).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Invertebrate food for lac/wax insects

Drugs, stimulants, social uses

• Religious

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Amenity
• Erosion control or dune stabilization
• Revegetation

Fuels

• Fuelwood

General

• Ornamental
• Sociocultural value

Human food and beverage

• Fruits

Materials

• Fibre
• Miscellaneous materials
• Resins
• Rubber/latex
• Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Wood Products

Prevention and Control

Ficus trees appear to be particularly sensitive to triclopyr herbicides as a basal or cut-stump treatment. However, extreme caution is needed when applying herbicide to fig species growing as epiphytes to ensure that the herbicide does not contact the host tree (Starr et al., 2003). 

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Contributors

30/04/15 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps

• = Present, no further details
• = Evidence of pathogen
• = Widespread
• = Last reported
• = Localised
• = Presence unconfirmed
• = Confined and subject to quarantine
• = See regional map for distribution within the country
• = Occasional or few reports

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