Datasheet
Abutilon theophrasti (velvet leaf)
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Pictures
Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |  | Title | Seedling |
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| Caption | Seedling of A. theophrasti. |
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| Copyright | Shunji Kurokawa |
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| Seedling | Seedling of A. theophrasti. | Shunji Kurokawa |
 | Title | Juvenile plant |
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| Caption | Juvenile plant of A. theophrasti. |
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| Copyright | Shunji Kurokawa |
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| Juvenile plant | Juvenile plant of A. theophrasti. | Shunji Kurokawa |
 | Title | Flower |
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| Caption | Flower of A. theophrasti. |
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| Copyright | Shunji Kurokawa |
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| Flower | Flower of A. theophrasti. | Shunji Kurokawa |
 | Title | Infestation |
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| Caption | Maize field in Japan infested by A. theophrasti. |
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| Copyright | Shunji Kurokawa |
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| Infestation | Maize field in Japan infested by A. theophrasti. | Shunji Kurokawa |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Abutilon theophrasti Medic.
Preferred Common Name
Other Scientific Names
- Abutilon avicennae Gaertn..
- Sida abutilon L.
International Common Names
- English: China jute; Chinese lantern; Indian mallow; piemarker; velvetleaf
- Spanish: malva blanca; malva de terciopelo; malva grande; yute de la China
- French: jute de Chine
- Chinese: ching-ma
Local Common Names
- Germany: Chinesische Jute; Chinesischer Hanf; Lindenblaettrige Schoenmalve; Samtpappel
- Italy: cencio molle; Iuta cinese
- Japan: bouma; ichibi
- USA: butterprint; buttonweed
EPPO code
- ABUTH (Abutilon theophrasti)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. theophrasti continues to expand its distribution in North America, Europe, Korea and Japan, by cultivation as a fibre crop, and by accidental introduction from contamination of grains and crop seeds. The species causes serious economic damage to agricultural production, particularly maize, soyabeans and cotton. On the other hand, the species is not invasive to natural vegetation in any area and the impact on biodiversity is small. A. theophrasti is not listed as a global invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page
- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Malvales
- Family: Malvaceae
- Genus: Abutilon
- Species: Abutilon theophrasti
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageMitch (1991) reports the nomenclatural history of A. theophrasti. Carolus Linnaeus classified this species as Sida abutilon. Its genus companions included such plants as Sida spinosa L. In 1787, Friedrich Casimir Medicus, director of the garden at Mannheim, published a volume in which he rearranged the Malvaceae, placing Sida abutilon in the genus Abutilon with the specific epithet theophrasti. Joseph Gaertner reclassified the plant as Abutilon avicennae, but scientific precedence held sway, and Medicus's name was restored.
The common names include several names meaning a kind of jute or hemp, because of the utilization of A. theophrasti as a fibre crop; for example, 'ma' of 'ching-ma' and the name 'bouma' mean 'hemps'.
Description
Top of pageAbutilon theophrasti is an annual herb, reproducing only by seed. After germination, a slender taproot elongates into soil with many smaller branches. The stem is erect, 1-4 m, much branched in the upper part. The crop type tends to produce many more branches than the wild type. The surface of the stem is smooth with short velvety hairs. Sixteen to sixty-three leaves per plant are alternately produced with long petioles, and a broadly heart-shaped blade. The width of the leaf blade is 7-20 cm and the leaf area ranges from 300 to 470 cm².
Flowers are located in the leaf axils of the main stem and short terminal branches, and have five yellow to yellow-orange petals slightly notched apically, 1.3-2.5 cm wide when open. The peduncles are shorter than the petioles. Anther filaments are united to form a central column. Seed pods or capsules with circular clusters of 12-15 carpels (seed pods) are cup shaped, 1.3-2.5 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, hairy and beaked. Each carpel contains 1-3 seeds. Mature capsules differ in colour between plant types. The capsule of the crop type is ivory whereas that of the other forms of A. theophrasti is black. The seeds are purplish-brown, kidney-shaped, notched, flattened, 1 mm thick and 2-3 mm long.
Plant Type
Top of pageAnnual
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Seed propagated
Distribution
Top of pageIn the genus Abutilon, only A. theophrasti occurs in temperate climates, with other Abutilon species found in tropical and subtropical climates. A. theophrasti originated in India or China. A. theophrasti was introduced into North America from Europe or Asia, and occurs throughout the United States between 32 and 45°N latitude, and in Ontario and Quebec in Canada, as a major agricultural weed. A. theophrasti also occurs in Europe, particularly in southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean region, and its range continues to spread throughout Europe. It is absent from South and Central America.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
| Country | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | References | Notes | ASIA |
| China | | | | | | | |
| -Hubei | Present | | Native | | Not invasive | Wood, 1992; USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| -Jilin | Present | | Native | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| -Liaoning | Present | | Native | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| India | Absent, formerly present | | Native | | Not invasive | Wood, 1992 | |
| Iran | Absent, formerly present | | | | | Faseli, 1977 | |
| Israel | Absent, formerly present | | | | | Wood, 1992 | |
| Japan | | | | | | | |
| -Honshu | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Kurokawa, 2001; Nishida, 2002; Kurokawa, 2002; Watanabe et al., 2002 | |
| -Kyushu | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Kurokawa, 2001; Nishida, 2002; Kurokawa, 2002 | |
| -Shikoku | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Kurokawa, 2001; Nishida, 2002; Kurokawa, 2002 | |
| Kazakhstan | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Korea, Republic of | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Lee et al., 1997; Park et al., 2001; Kang & Shim, 2002 | |
| Pakistan | Absent, formerly present | | Introduced | | | Kahn et al., 1981 | |
| Turkey | Restricted distribution | | Introduced | | Invasive | Uremis & Uygur, 1999; Uremis & Uygur, 2002 | |
AFRICA |
| Eritrea | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Ethiopia | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Morocco | Present | | Introduced | 1980 | Invasive | Taleb et al., 1998; Tanji & Taleb, 1997 | |
NORTH AMERICA |
| Canada | | | | | | | |
| -New Brunswick | Restricted distribution | | Introduced | | Invasive | Warwick & Black, 1988 | |
| -Nova Scotia | Absent, formerly present | | Introduced | | Invasive | Warwick & Black, 1988 | |
| -Ontario | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Warwick & Black, 1988 | |
| -Quebec | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Doyon et al., 1986; Warwick & Black, 1988 | |
| USA | | | | | | | |
| -Alabama | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Arizona | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Arkansas | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -California | Widespread | | Introduced | 1917 | Not invasive | Holt & Boose, 2000; USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Colorado | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Connecticut | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Delaware | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Florida | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Georgia | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Idaho | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Illinois | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Stoller et al., 1993; USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Indiana | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Jordan, 1980; Jordan, 1984; USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Iowa | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Bello & Owen, 1986; Hartzler, 1996; Felix & Owen, 2001; USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Kansas | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Kentucky | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Louisiana | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Maine | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Maryland | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Massachusetts | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Michigan | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Minnesota | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Mississippi | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Missouri | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Montana | Widespread | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002; Rice, 2003 | |
| -Nebraska | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Nevada | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -New Hampshire | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -New Jersey | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -New Mexico | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -New York | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | Dillard et al., 1991; USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -North Carolina | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -North Dakota | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Ohio | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | Loux & Berry, 1991; USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Oklahoma | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Oregon | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Pennsylvania | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Rhode Island | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -South Carolina | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -South Dakota | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Tennessee | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Texas | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Utah | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Vermont | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Virginia | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Washington | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002; USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| -West Virginia | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Wisconsin | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
| -Wyoming | Present | | Introduced | | Not invasive | USDA-NRCS, 2002 | |
EUROPE |
| Bulgaria | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | Konstantinov & Nikolova, 1983 | |
| Croatia | Present | | Introduced | 198* | Invasive | Jurkovic & Culek, 1997; Hulina, 2000 | |
| Denmark | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| France | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Germany | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Greece | Present | | Introduced | | | Boliotes, 1984 | |
| Hungary | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Szoke, 2001 | |
| Italy | Widespread | | Introduced | | Invasive | Campagna & Rapparini, 1997; USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Netherlands | Present | | Introduced | | | Netherlands Plantenziektenkundige Dienst, 1982; USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Poland | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Portugal | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Romania | Present | | Introduced | | | Chirila & Pintilie, 1986; USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Russian Federation | | | | | | | |
| -Russian Far East | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| -Southern Russia | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Slovenia | Present | | Introduced | | | Lesnik, 2000 | |
| Spain | Widespread | | Introduced | | | Fraga et al., 2001 | |
| Sweden | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Switzerland | Present | | Introduced | | Invasive | Gut & Weber, 1999; USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| UK | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Ukraine | Present | | Introduced | | | USDA-ARS, 2003 | |
| Yugoslavia (former) | Present | | Introduced | | | Ognjanovic et al., 1986 | |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageAbutilon theophrasti has been introduced into countries worldwide and cultivated as a fibre crop. Accidental introductions, mixed in grains or crop seeds, are also important pathways for the spread of the species.
Spencer (1984) summarized the history of A. theophrasti in the USA. Before 1700, early North American settlers had introduced A. theophrasti from England as an essential source of plant fibres. A. theophrasti had become common in at least two states, Pennsylvania and Virginia, by 1829. However, the inferior characteristics of the fibre of A. theophrasti could have contributed to the lack of interest in A. theophrasti as a fibre plant in the USA. Since the 1870s, the status of A. theophrasti has changed to that of a major weed.
In Canada, Warwick and Black (1988) report the history of spread of A. theophrasti. On the basis of herbarium records, A. theophrasti colonies were small in Canada until 1950. By 1984, its range as a weed of cultivated land extended to all but three counties in Ontario, 72 localities in Quebec, and at least one location near Wilmo, Nova Scotia. The spread would appear to be due to movement of seed in feed grain, mainly maize and soyabeans, and on tillage and harvesting equipment.
In Japan, A. theophrasti must have been introduced as a fibre crop before 918, because the name already existed in old Japanese literature edited in 918. Since 1980, weedy strains have been accidentally introduced, mixed in feed grains from the United States and Australia, and occur as a troublesome weed in maize fields all over Japan (Kurokawa et al., 2003). A. theophrasti has also been accidentally introduced into Morocco mixed in crop seeds, and it has become a serious weed since 1980 (Tanji and Taleb, 1997). In Europe, there is little information about the first records of the species.
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThere is a risk of continued spread of A. theophrasti through accidental introduction by the contamination of grains or crop seeds. A. theophrasti is listed as a noxious weed in Colorado, a secondary noxious weed in Iowa and Minnesota, a 'B' designated weed in Oregon, and a class A noxious weed in Washington, USA. However, it is not listed in the Federal Noxious Weed List for the USA.
Habitat
Top of pageA. theophrasti in its introduced areas is found in wasteland, vacant lots, gardens and cultivated fields, especially maize and soyabean fields and along fence rows (Warwick and Black, 1988).
Habitat List
Top of page| Category | Habitat | Presence | Status | | Terrestrial-managed |
| Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageA. theophrasti competes with the listed crops for light and nutrients. Allelopathic chemicals from seeds or leaves depress the germination and growth of crops (Warwick and Black, 1988). Because maize leaf production is complete by anthesis whereas A. theophrasti continues vegetative production throughout its life cycle, A. theophrasti will produce relatively greater quantities of biomass late in the season, which may increase competition for light (Lindquist, 2001).
Growth Stages
Top of pageFlowering stage, Fruiting stage, Pre-emergence, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageThe chromosome number of A. theophrasti is 2n=6X=42. Hybridization between A. theophrasti and other species has not been reported. In a study of allozyme variations among 39 populations of A. theophrasti collected between southern Ohio (39°N) and Central Ontario (45°N), only two of 16 enzymes were variable and only four multilocus electrophoretic genotypes were evident among populations, although high levels of enzyme multiplicity were evident within an individual as a result of polyploidy (Warwick and Black, 1986).
Physiology and Phenology
The optimal temperature for germination of A. theophrasti seeds is 24-30°C. Seeds emerge in soil between 1 and 5 cm depth. A. theophrasti emerges throughout the season (Warwick and Black, 1988), mainly from March to May in the United States (Stoller and Wax, 1973; Egley and Williams, 1991; Hartzler et al., 1999). Emerging seedlings immediately produce a taproot, followed by development of lateral roots 1 or 2 days after emergence (Warwick and Black, 1988). Under non-competitive field conditions in Mississippi, maximum height and ground cover occurred 10 weeks after emergence with peak capsule production at 13 weeks (Chandler and Dale, 1974).
Oliver (1979) suggested that A. theophrasti was highly photoperiodic (a short-day plant). In eastern Canada, A. theophrasti starts to flower in late August to September, setting seed from September to October (Warwick and Black, 1988). A. theophrasti has some freely moving leaves that maintain a small angle between the normal to the leaf and the sun's rays (Jurik and Akey, 1994). The freely moving leaves have higher total daily carbon gain, transpiration and water use efficiency than leaves fixed in a horizontal position.
Reproductive Biology
A. theophrasti is a self-compatible, autogamous species. As pollen of A. theophrasti is released by the anthers before or in immediate conjunction with flower opening, pollination would have occurred before stigmas could be exposed to pollen from another flower (Andersen, 1988). Approximately 3% of seeds produced in field conditions could originate from outcrossing, in occasionally found buds with a stigma protruding from otherwise tightly closed petals (Andersen, 1988).
Propagation is always by seeds, which are produced in large numbers, varying from 700 to 44,200 per plant. Seeds mature 17-22 days after pollination. Seeds are dispersed by opening of each carpel with a vertical slit along the outer edge. Seeds are known to remain viable for up to 50 years when stored dry or in the soil (Shaw and Brown, 1972).
Environmental Requirements
In North America, A. theophrasti is absent from the prairies, where the dry climate and high evaporation restrict growth (Lindsay, 1953). Although A. theophrasti is continuing to expand northward into Canada with climates of progressively shorter growing seasons, it does not reproduce in Alaska with only 88 frost-free days (Andersen et al., 1985). A. theophrasti occurs on a range of soil types, from sandy to clay loams (Warwick and Black, 1988). In the mid-western United States and southwestern Ontario, Canada, A. theophrasti commonly occurs together with Datura stramonium in the early successional annual community that develops on cultivated fields and field margins (Benner and Bazzaz, 1987; Garbutt and Bazzaz, 1987).
Associations
A. theophrasti is host for a maize pest, Helicoverpa zea; a tobacco pest, Heliothis virescens (Hendricks, 1992); and three soyabean diseases, Diaporthe phaseolorum var. sojae, Collectotrichum dematium f.sp. truncatum and Glomerella cingulata (Hepperly et al., 1980). A fungal association consisting of Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Epicoccum purpurascens and Fusarium spp. may extend A. theophrasti seed longevity by acting as a barrier to potential seed decomposers originating from the soil (Kremer, 1986). It has been reported that mycorrhizal infestation of A. theophrasti promotes capsule production and increases the competitive ability of the offspring (Shumway and Koide, 1995; Heppell et al., 1998).
Air Temperature
Top of page| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | | Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 7 | |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 18 | |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | -8 | |
Rainfall
Top of page| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description | | Mean annual rainfall | 0 | 0 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
Soil texture
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMost of the organisms listed in the Natural Enemies table cause serious damage to A. theophrasti. All the species listed are found as natural infections. A wilt pathogen, Verticillium dahliae, causes necrosis to leaves of A. theophrasti and reduces seed production. Infections of A. theophrasti by the pathogen have been reported in Illinois (Kirkpatrick and Harrison, 1979), Wisconsin (Sickinger and Harvey, 1980; Sickinger et al., 1987), Iowa (Hartzler, 1996) and Indiana (Wiley et al., 1985) in the USA.
Gibb (1991) studied five insect species, Heliothis zea [Helicoverpa zea], H. virescens, Liorhyssus hyalinus, Niestrea louisianica and Althaeus folkertsi, attacking A. theophrasti seeds, and noted that these species had a significant negative impact on the number of viable A. theophrasti seeds produced in Indiana, USA. N. louisianica reduced the number of viable seeds of A. theophrasti by 17.5% and 15.5% in two places in Missouri (Kremer and Spencer, 1989).
Colletotrichum coccodes has been investigated as a possible mycoherbicide (Gotlieb et al., 1987; Fernando et al., 1996). The pathogen causes more serious damage to A. theophrasti in competitive conditions with soyabeans than in monoculture (Ditommaso et al., 1996).
Infection by Phomopsis longicolla was first reported in Illinois, USA, in 2000 (Li et al., 2001). The pathogen causes reddish-brown lesions on the lower stem and upper root area of A. theophrasti plants growing in soyabean fields. Turnip mosaic potyvirus also caused severe mosaic symptoms to A. theophrasti in Piedmont, northwest Italy (Guglielmone et al., 2000). A. theophrasti can be a host of a parasitic plant, Cuscuta pentagona, only when roots of A. theophrasti are colonized by mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus intraradices) (Sanders et al., 1993).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Propagation is wholly by seeds, which are produced in very large numbers. Seeds are dispersed by the gravity dispersal system.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
No relevant instances have been documented.
Agricultural Practices
Movement of seeds by agricultural practices such s fibre crop cultivation, and transportation of crop seeds or grains, are very important for spreading A. theophrasti.
Accidental Introduction
An important pathway of introduction is the accidental contamination of feed grains. Much of the spread of A. theophrasti in eastern Canada would appear to be due to movement of seed in feed grain, mainly maize and soyabeans, and on tillage and harvesting equipment (Brown, 1985). In Japan, rapid spread as a serious weed was caused by feed grains containing A. theophrasti seeds imported from the United States and Australia (Kurokawa, 2002). The accidental contamination of crop seeds is another pathway (Ilic and Kalinovic, 1995; Tanji and Taleb, 1997). Manure could also be a vector of A. theophrasti seeds (Mt. Pleasant and Schlather, 1994; Nishida, 2002).
Intentional Introduction
In the United States, A. theophrasti seeds were introduced as a fibre crop in the eighteenth century (Spencer, 1984). The introduction of seeds for development of fibre crop cultivation may have been one of the most important intentional introduction pathways. However, at present this pathway may not be important because of the decline in A. theophrasti cultivation.
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References | | Containers and packaging (wood) | | Yes | | |
Plant Trade
Top of page| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms | | Growing medium accompanying plants | seeds | No | | |
| True seeds (inc. grain) | seeds | No | | |
| Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport | | Bark |
| Bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Rhizomes |
| Flowers, Inflorescences, Cones, Calyx |
| Fruits (inc. pods) |
| Leaves |
| Roots |
| Seedlings, Micropropagated plants |
| Stems (above ground), Shoots, Trunks, Branches |
| Wood |
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact | | Animal/plant collections | None |
| Animal/plant products | None |
| Biodiversity (generally) | None |
| Crop production | Negative |
| Environment (generally) | None |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
| Forestry production | None |
| Human health | None |
| Livestock production | Negative |
| Native fauna | None |
| Native flora | None |
| Rare/protected species | None |
| Tourism | None |
| Trade/international relations | None |
| Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageA. theophrasti causes severe crop loss in maize, soyabean and cotton. In soyabean, 72% crop loss can be caused by infestation of A. theophrasti (Sterling and Putnam, 1987), while 70% crop loss has been recorded in maize (Campbell and Hartwig, 1982). In the United States, the estimated cost for control of A. theophrasti was $343 million in 1982 (Spencer, 1984).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageEnvironmental impact of A. theophrasti may be small, because the species is not invasive to natural vegetation in any area.
Impact: Biodiversity
Top of pageNo instance of competition or hybridization with native flora has been reported.
Social Impact
Top of pageThere is little social impact, but the species has a peculiar smell which can be offensive.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of pageImpact mechanisms
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
Impact outcomes
- Negatively impacts agriculture
Invasiveness
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Highly mobile locally
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Likelihood of entry/control
- Difficult/costly to control
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageSpencer (1984) noted that bast fibre of A. theophrasti was used to make rope, cordage, bags, coarse cloth, fishing nets and paper stock, and for caulking boats, in China since 2000 B.C. Seeds contain 15-30% lipid and are edible.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThere are no similar species which could be confused in the field.
Prevention and Control
Top of page
Cultural Control
Sato et al. (2000) noted that a living mulch of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) reduced yield loss in the late spring sowing of maize in Japan. Lueschen and Andersen (1980) suggested that intensive tillage could decrease the seed population.
Mechanical Control
Hand-pulling can be effective on young seedlings but is impractical in large fields of maize, soyabeans and cotton in intensive agriculture. Machine intertillage in row crops is also effective only in relatively small fields.
Chemical Control
Effective herbicides include metribuzin, atrazine, 2,4-D, bentazone, bromoxynil, cyanazine, dicamba, linuron, halosulfuron-methyl and fluthiacet-methyl. However, triazine-resistant biotypes of A. theophrasti have been reported in Maryland, Wisconsin and Minnesota, USA (Ritter, 1986; Grey et al., 1993; Weed Science Society of America, 2003).
Biological Control
Niesthrea lousianica, Fusarium lateritium [Gibberella baccata] and Colletotrichum coccodes have been studied as potential agents for biological control or mycoherbicides (Warwick and Black, 1988). In field tests, pre-emergence applications of F. lateritium in granular formulation gave 46 and 35% control of A. theophrasti in 1982 and 1983, respectively (Boyette and Walker, 1985).
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.sp. malvae has been investigated as a potential biocontrol agent. Mortensen (1988) found that the fungus was specific to Malva spp. and A. theophrasti, but was less pathogenic on A. theophrasti. Kutcher and Mortensen (1999) stated that although the fungus is pathogenic on velvetleaf, it does not cause sufficient damage or mortality to be considered as a biological control agent. However, they investigated a range of isolates from Canada which were found to be highly pathogenic on A. theophrasti.
Fusarium oxysporum has also been investigated on A. theophrasti (Kremer and Schulte, 1989; Jennings et al., 2000) In the study by Kremer and Schulte, seedling emergence was decreased when the fungus was applied together with ethephon.
Integrated Control
Because A. theophrasti germinates throughout the season, diverse practices are needed to sustain effective control of A. theophrasti infestations, including crop rotation, multiple herbicide applications and cultivations (Warwick and Black, 1988). Bussan and Boerboom (2001) modelled the integrated management of A. theophrasti in a maize-soyabean rotation. Wilt disease or mechanical treatment by inter-row cultivation could reduce the herbicide rate needed to reduce the A. theophrasti seed bank only when initial seed bank density was low.
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Distribution Maps
Top of page
- = Present, no further details
- = Evidence of pathogen
- = Widespread
- = Last reported
- = Localised
- = Presence unconfirmed
- = Confined and subject to quarantine
- = See regional map for distribution within the country
- = Occasional or few reports