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Datasheet

Coccus hesperidum (brown soft scale)

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 20 March 2017
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Pest
  • Natural Enemy
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Coccus hesperidum
  • Preferred Common Name
  • brown soft scale
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Arthropoda
  •             Subphylum: Uniramia
  •                 Class: Insecta

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Pictures

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PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
Symptoms on citrus (scales on leaves)
TitleSymptoms on citrus (scales on leaves)
Caption
CopyrightAgrEvo
Symptoms on citrus (scales on leaves)
Symptoms on citrus (scales on leaves)AgrEvo
Adult female of Coccus hesperidum.
TitleLine artwork of adult female
CaptionAdult female of Coccus hesperidum.
CopyrightC. Hodgson
Adult female of Coccus hesperidum.
Line artwork of adult femaleAdult female of Coccus hesperidum.C. Hodgson

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus, 1758

Preferred Common Name

  • brown soft scale

Other Scientific Names

  • Calypticus hesperidum (Linnaeus) Costa 1829
  • Calypticus laevis Costa 1829, Fernald 1903
  • Chermes lauri Boisduval 1867, Maskell 1893
  • Coccus (Lecanium) hesperidum Linnaeus, Hall 1922
  • Coccus (Lecanium) minimus Newstead, Cockerell 1903
  • Coccus angustatus (Signoret) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus flaveolus (Cockerell) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus hesperidum alienus (Douglas) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus hesperidum lauri (Boisduval) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus hesperidum pacificus (Kuwana) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus jungi Chen 1936, Tang 1991
  • Coccus maculatus (Signoret) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus mauritiensis (Mamet) Mamet 1949
  • Coccus minimus (Newstead) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus minimus pinicola (Maskell) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus nanus (Cockerell) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus patellaeformis Curtis 1843, Fernald 1903
  • Coccus signiferus (Green) Sanders 1906
  • Coccus terminaliae (Cockerell) Fernald 1903
  • Coccus ventralis (Ehrhorn) Fernald 1903
  • Eulecanium assimile amaryllidis (Cockerell) Fernald 1903
  • Kermes aurantj Alfonso 1875, Fernald 1903
  • Lecanium (Calymnatus) hesperidum pacificum Kuwana 1902, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium (Coccus) hesperidum Linnaeus, Green 1937
  • Lecanium (Coccus) hesperidum Linnaeus, Pettit & McDaniel 1920
  • Lecanium (Coccus) signiferum Green, Green 1937
  • Lecanium alienum Douglas 1886, Leonardi 1920
  • Lecanium angustatus Signoret 1873, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium assimile amaryllidis Cockerell, Cockerell 1893 (Nomen nudum)
  • Lecanium assimile amaryllis Cockerell 1894, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium ceratoniae Gennadius 1895, Fernald 1903
  • Lecanium depressum simulans Douglas, Douglas 1887 (Nomen nudum)
  • Lecanium flaveolum Cockerell 1897, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium hesperidum (Linnaeus) Burmeister 1935
  • Lecanium hesperidum alienum Douglas, Cockerell 1899
  • Lecanium hesperidum lauri (Boisduval) Cockerell 1896
  • Lecanium hesperidum minimum Newstead, Newstead 1903
  • Lecanium lauri (Boisduval) Signoret 1873
  • Lecanium maculatum Signoret 1873, Ben-Dov 1976
  • Lecanium mauritiense Mamet 1936, De Lotto 1959
  • Lecanium minimum Newstead 1892, Boratynski & Williams 1964
  • Lecanium minimum pinicola Maskell 1897, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium nanum Cockerell 1896, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium punctuliferum Green 1904, De Lotto 1959
  • Lecanium signiferum Green 1904, Boratynski & Williams 1964
  • Lecanium terminaliae Cockerell 1893, Sanders 1909
  • Lecanium ventrale Ehrhorn 1898, Sanders 1909
  • Saissetia punctulifera (Green) Sanders, 1906

International Common Names

  • English: common shield scale; soft brown scale; soft scale
  • Spanish: cochinilla blanda de los citros; cochinilla blanda del naranjo; escama parda blanda
  • French: chermes des hesperides; cochenille plate; cochenille plate de l'orange; pou des hesperides
  • Portuguese: escama marron

Local Common Names

  • Denmark: voksskjoldlus
  • Finland: oranssikilpikirva
  • Germany: Orangen-schildlaus; Weiche-schildlaus; Zitrus-schildlaus
  • Israel: haknima hachuma haraka
  • Italy: cocciniglia degli agrumi; leganio del liscio degli agrumi; leganio liscio degli agrumi
  • Japan: hirata-katakaigaramusi
  • Netherlands: Dopluis, platte
  • Norway: voksskjoldlus
  • South Africa: sagte dopluis
  • Sweden: orangefägad sköldlus
  • Turkey: yumusak kosnil

EPPO code

  • COCCHE (Coccus hesperidum)

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Arthropoda
  •             Subphylum: Uniramia
  •                 Class: Insecta
  •                     Order: Hemiptera
  •                         Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
  •                             Superfamily: Coccoidea
  •                                 Family: Coccidae
  •                                     Genus: Coccus
  •                                         Species: Coccus hesperidum

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

CountryDistributionLast ReportedOriginFirst ReportedInvasiveReferencesNotes

ASIA

AfghanistanPresentBen-Dov, 1993
ArmeniaPresentCIE, 1972
AzerbaijanPresentHayat, 1997
BangladeshPresentCIE, 1972
BhutanPresentNHM, 1985
ChinaPresentCIE, 1972
-Hong KongPresentNHM, 1980
-TibetPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Georgia (Republic of)PresentHayat, 1997
IndiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Andhra PradeshPresentNHM, 1990
-AssamPresentNHM, 1956
-BiharPresentNHM, 1951
-DelhiPresentNHM, 1964
-GujaratPresentNHM, 1983
-Himachal PradeshPresentReddy & Ruchi, 2015
-Indian PunjabPresentNHM, 1978
-Jammu and KashmirPresentCIE, 1972; NHM, pre-1979
-KarnatakaPresentNHM, 1985
-KeralaPresentNHM, 1988
-Madhya PradeshPresentNHM, 1965
-MaharashtraPresentSuroshe et al., 2016; NHM, pre-1940
-OdishaPresentNHM, 1983
-Tamil NaduPresentNHM, 1953
-Uttar PradeshPresentNHM, 1979
-West BengalPresentNHM, 1957
IndonesiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Irian JayaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
-JavaPresentCIE, 1972
-SulawesiPresentWatson et al., 2014; NHM, 1985
-SumatraPresentCIE, 1972
IranPresentBen-Dov, 1993
IraqPresentBen-Dov, 1993
IsraelPresentBen-Dov, 1993
JapanPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-HonshuPresentCIE, 1972
-KyushuPresentCIE, 1972
-Ryukyu ArchipelagoPresentCIE, 1972
-ShikokuPresentCIE, 1972
Korea, DPRPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Korea, Republic ofPresentBen-Dov, 1993
LebanonPresentBen-Dov, 1993
MalaysiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-SabahPresentNHM, 1983
-SarawakPresentCIE, 1972; NHM, 1985
MaldivesPresentNHM, 1993
MyanmarPresentCIE, 1972
NepalPresentCIE, 1972
OmanPresentNHM, 1992
PakistanPresentSwirski et al., 1997
PhilippinesPresentGill et al., 1977; Swirski et al., 1997
Saudi ArabiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Sri LankaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
SyriaPresentCIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016
TaiwanPresentBen-Dov, 1993
TajikistanPresentCIE, 1972
ThailandPresentBen-Dov, 1993
TurkeyPresentBen-Dov, 1993
TurkmenistanPresentCIE, 1972
VietnamPresentBen-Dov, 1993

AFRICA

AlgeriaPresentHayat, 1997
AngolaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Burkina FasoPresentCIE, 1972
CameroonPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Cape VerdePresentBen-Dov, 1993
Central African RepublicPresentHayat, 1997
CongoPresentNHM, 1987
Congo Democratic RepublicPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Côte d'IvoirePresentCIE, 1972
EgyptPresentCIE, 1972
EthiopiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
GambiaPresentCIE, 1972
GhanaPresentCIE, 1972
KenyaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
LibyaPresentCIE, 1972
MalawiPresentBen-Dov, 1993
MaliPresentCIE, 1972; Muniappan et al., 2012
MauritiusPresentBen-Dov, 1993
MoroccoPresentHayat, 1997
MozambiquePresentHayat, 1997
NigerPresentCIE, 1972
NigeriaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
RéunionPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Saint HelenaPresentCIE, 1972
-AscensionPresentNHM, 1978
SenegalPresentHayat, 1997
SeychellesPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Sierra LeonePresentBen-Dov, 1993
SomaliaPresentCIE, 1972
South AfricaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Spain
-Canary IslandsPresentBen-Dov, 1993
SudanPresentBen-Dov, 1993
TanzaniaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-ZanzibarPresentBen-Dov, 1993
TogoPresentCIE, 1972
TunisiaPresentCIE, 1972
UgandaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
ZambiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
ZimbabwePresentBen-Dov, 1993

NORTH AMERICA

BermudaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
CanadaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-British ColumbiaPresentCIE, 1972
MexicoPresentBen-Dov, 1993
USAPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-AlabamaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-ArizonaPresentCIE, 1972
-CaliforniaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-FloridaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-GeorgiaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-HawaiiPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-IowaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-LouisianaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-MarylandPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-MississippiPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-MissouriPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-New MexicoPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-North CarolinaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-OregonPresentCIE, 1972
-PennsylvaniaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-South CarolinaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-TennesseePresentBen-Dov, 1993
-TexasPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-UtahPresentNHM, 1962
-VirginiaPresentHammon & Williams, 1984
-WashingtonPresentCIE, 1972
-West VirginiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-WyomingPresentBen-Dov, 1993

CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN

BahamasPresentNHM, 1977
BarbadosPresentNHM, 1964
BelizePresentNHM, 1971
Costa RicaPresentCIE, 1972; Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería Servicio Fitosanitario del Estad
CubaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
DominicaPresentNHM, 1959
El SalvadorPresentBen-Dov, 1993
GuadeloupePresentBen-Dov, 1993
GuatemalaPresentCIE, 1972
HondurasPresentCIE, 1972
JamaicaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
NicaraguaPresentCIE, 1972
PanamaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Puerto RicoPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Saint LuciaPresentNHM, 1984
Trinidad and TobagoPresentBen-Dov, 1993
United States Virgin IslandsPresentBen-Dov, 1993

SOUTH AMERICA

ArgentinaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
BrazilPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-AmazonasPresentCIE, 1972
-BahiaPresentCIE, 1972
-ParaPresentCIE, 1972
-Rio de JaneiroPresentCIE, 1972
-Rio Grande do SulPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Santa CatarinaPresentCIE, 1972
-Sao PauloPresentCIE, 1972
ChilePresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Easter IslandPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990
ColombiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; Kondo & Muñoz, 2016
EcuadorPresentCIE, 1972
GuyanaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
ParaguayPresentHayat, 1997
PeruPresentPonsonby & Copland, 1997
SurinamePresentBen-Dov, 1993
UruguayPresentCIE, 1972
VenezuelaPresentCIE, 1972

EUROPE

AustriaPresentNHM, 1964
BelgiumPresentIntroducedMalumphy, 2016; Ben-Dov, 1993
BulgariaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
CyprusPresentBen-Dov, 1993; Sisman & Ülgentürk, 2010
DenmarkPresentBen-Dov, 1993
FrancePresentBen-Dov, 1993
-CorsicaPresentCIE, 1972
GermanyPresentBen-Dov, 1993
GreecePresentBen-Dov, 1993; Papadopoulou, 2012
HungaryPresentBen-Dov, 1993
ItalyPresentBen-Dov, 1993
MaltaPresentCIE, 1972
NetherlandsPresentNHM, 1982
PolandPresentNHM, 1958
PortugalPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-AzoresPresentCIE, 1972
-MadeiraPresentBen-Dov, 1993
RomaniaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
SpainPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Balearic IslandsPresentCIE, 1972
SwedenPresentBen-Dov, 1993
UKPresentBen-Dov, 1993; NHM, 1914; NHM, 1938; NHM, 1987
-Channel IslandsPresentNHM, 1964
Ukraine
-Krymskaya OblastPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Yugoslavia (former)PresentBen-Dov, 1993; NHM, 1962

OCEANIA

American SamoaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
AustraliaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Australian Northern TerritoryPresentCIE, 1972
-New South WalesPresentNHM, 1965
-QueenslandPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-South AustraliaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-TasmaniaPresentCIE, 1972
-Western AustraliaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Cook IslandsPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
FijiPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
French PolynesiaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
KiribatiPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
Marshall IslandsPresentBen-Dov, 1993
New CaledoniaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
New ZealandPresentBen-Dov, 1993; Henderson et al., 2010
NiuePresentWilliams & Watson, 1990
Norfolk IslandPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
Northern Mariana IslandsPresentBen-Dov, 1993
PalauPresentBen-Dov, 1993
Papua New GuineaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
SamoaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
Solomon IslandsPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
TongaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
TuvaluPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993
VanuatuPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993

Host plants/Plants Affected

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Plant nameFamilyContext
AbelmoschusMalvaceaeOther
Abutilon (Indian mallow)MalvaceaeOther
Acacia (wattles)FabaceaeOther
Acalypha (Copperleaf)EuphorbiaceaeOther
Acer (maples)AceraceaeOther
ActinidiaActinidiaceaeOther
Adiantum (maidenhair ferns)PteridaceaeOther
AgaveAgavaceaeOther
AllamandaApocynaceaeOther
Aloe (grey alder)AloaceaeOther
AlpiniaZingiberaceaeOther
Althaea (hollyhocks)MalvaceaeOther
AnacardiumAnacardiaceaeOther
AnnonaAnnonaceaeOther
AnthuriumAraceaeOther
AraliaAraliaceaeOther
ArdisiaPrimulaceaeOther
ArecaArecaceaeOther
ArengaArecaceaeOther
Aristolochia (dutchman's pipe)AristolochiaceaeOther
Artocarpus (breadfruit trees)MoraceaeOther
Asplenium (spleenworts)AspleniaceaeOther
AsterAsteraceaeOther
AtalantiaRutaceaeOther
BaccharisAsteraceaeOther
Bauhinia (camel's foot)FabaceaeOther
BegoniaBegoniaceaeOther
Berberis (barberries)BerberidaceaeOther
Bidens (Burmarigold)AsteraceaeOther
BignoniaBignoniaceaeOther
BougainvilleaNyctaginaceaeOther
BromeliaBromeliaceaeOther
Caesalpinia (divi-divi)FabaceaeOther
CajanusFabaceaeOther
CaladiumAraceaeOther
Callistemon (Bottle brush)MyrtaceaeOther
Calophyllum (beauty-leaf)ClusiaceaeOther
CamelliaTheaceaeOther
Camellia sinensis (tea)TheaceaeOther
CanavaliaFabaceaeOther
CannaCannaceaeOther
Capsicum (peppers)SolanaceaeOther
Carex (sedges)CyperaceaeOther
CaricaCaricaceaeOther
CarissaApocynaceaeOther
Carya (hickories)JuglandaceaeOther
CaryotaArecaceaeOther
Cassia (sennas)FabaceaeOther
Casuarina (beefwood)CasuarinaceaeOther
CattleyaOrchidaceaeOther
Cedrus (cedars)PinaceaeOther
CeibaBombacaceaeOther
CeratoniaFabaceaeOther
Cercis (redbud)FabaceaeOther
Cestrum (jessamine)SolanaceaeOther
ChamaedoreaArecaceaeOther
Chamaerops (fan palm)ArecaceaeOther
ChlorophytumLiliaceaeOther
ChrysalidocarpusArecaceaeOther
Chrysanthemum (daisy)AsteraceaeOther
ChrysophyllumSapotaceaeOther
CinnamomumLauraceaeOther
CitrullusCucurbitaceaeOther
CitrusRutaceaeMain
ClematisRanunculaceaeOther
Clerodendrum (Fragrant clerodendron)LamiaceaeOther
CleyeraTheaceaeOther
CliviaLiliaceaeOther
Cocculus (snailseed)MenispermaceaeOther
ColeusLamiaceaeOther
ColumneaGesneriaceaeOther
CoprosmaRubiaceaeOther
CordylineAgavaceaeOther
Cornus (Dogwood)CornaceaeOther
CotoneasterRosaceaeOther
Crataegus (hawthorns)RosaceaeOther
Cucurbita (pumpkin)CucurbitaceaeOther
CurcumaZingiberaceaeOther
CycasCycadaceaeOther
CyclamenPrimulaceaeOther
Cydonia (quince)RosaceaeOther
Cyperus (flatsedge)CyperaceaeOther
Dalbergia (rosewoods)FabaceaeOther
Datura (thorn-apple)SolanaceaeOther
DavalliaOther
DendrobiumOrchidaceaeOther
Dianthus (carnation)CaryophyllaceaeOther
Dieffenbachia (dumbcanes)AraceaeOther
Dioscorea (yam)DioscoreaceaeOther
Diospyros (malabar ebony)EbenaceaeOther
Dizygotheca (false aralia)AraliaceaeOther
DodonaeaSapindaceaeOther
DracaenaAgavaceaeOther
DurantaVerbenaceaeOther
DurioBombacaceaeOther
ElaeagnusElaeagnaceaeOther
ElettariaZingiberaceaeOther
EriobotryaRosaceaeOther
Eryngium (sea-holly)ApiaceaeOther
EucalyptusMyrtaceaeOther
EugeniaMyrtaceaeOther
Euonymus (spindle trees)CelastraceaeOther
Euphorbia (spurges)EuphorbiaceaeOther
FatsiaAraliaceaeOther
FicusMoraceaeOther
Fortunella (kumquats)RutaceaeOther
Fragaria (strawberry)RosaceaeOther
FuchsiaOnagraceaeOther
GardeniaRubiaceaeOther
Gazania (treasure-flower)AsteraceaeOther
Genista (broom)FabaceaeOther
Geranium (cranesbill)GeraniaceaeOther
Gerbera (Barbeton daisy)AsteraceaeOther
Gladiolus hybrids (sword lily)IridaceaeOther
GliricidiaFabaceaeOther
GlycineFabaceaeOther
Gossypium (cotton)MalvaceaeOther
GrevilleaProteaceaeOther
GrewiaTiliaceaeOther
Haemanthus (blood-lily)LiliaceaeOther
Hedera (Ivy)AraliaceaeOther
HeliconiaHeliconiaceaeOther
Hemerocallis (daylilies)LiliaceaeOther
Hibiscus (rosemallows)MalvaceaeOther
HippeastrumLiliaceaeOther
Hydrangea (hydrangeas)HydrangeaceaeOther
HymenosporumPittosporaceaeOther
Ilex (Holly)AquifoliaceaeOther
IlliciumIlliciaceaeOther
Impatiens (balsam)BalsaminaceaeOther
Iresine (blood-leaf)AmaranthaceaeOther
Iris (irises)IridaceaeOther
IxoraRubiaceaeOther
JacarandaBignoniaceaeOther
Jasminum (jasmine)OleaceaeOther
JatrophaEuphorbiaceaeOther
KalanchoeCrassulaceaeOther
KorthalsellaViscaceaeUnknown
LantanaVerbenaceaeOther
Laurus (laurel)LauraceaeOther
LawsoniaLythraceaeOther
LespedezaFabaceaeOther
Ligustrum (privet)OleaceaeOther
Lilium (lily)LiliaceaeOther
Lindera (spicebush)LauraceaeOther
Lonicera (honeysuckles)CaprifoliaceaeOther
Lycium (boxthorn)SolanaceaeOther
Lysimachia (loosestrife)PrimulaceaeOther
MagnoliaMagnoliaceaeOther
Mahonia (holly grape)BerberidaceaeOther
Malus (ornamental species apple)RosaceaeOther
Malva (mallow)MalvaceaeOther
Mangifera indica (mango)AnacardiaceaeOther
ManilkaraSapotaceaeOther
MelastomaMelastomataceaeOther
Menispermum (moonseed)MenispermaceaeOther
MicrocoelumOther
MicrolepiaDennstaedtiaceaeOther
MilletiaOther
MonsteraAraceaeOther
Morus (mulberrytree)MoraceaeOther
MurrayaRutaceaeOther
Musa (banana)MusaceaeOther
MyoporumMyoporaceaeOther
MyrsineMyrsinaceaeOther
Myrtus (myrtle)MyrtaceaeOther
NeoregeliaBromeliaceaeOther
Nephelium (rambutan)SapindaceaeOther
Nephrolepis (fishtail ferns)NephrolepidaceaeOther
Nerium (oleander)ApocynaceaeOther
Ocimum basilicum (basil)LamiaceaeOther
OdontoglossumOrchidaceaeOther
Olea (olive)OleaceaeOther
OrnithogalumLiliaceaeOther
Oxalis (wood sorrels)OxalidaceaeOther
Paphiopedilum (lady's slipper orchid)OrchidaceaeOther
ParkinsoniaFabaceaeOther
ParthenocissusVitaceaeOther
Passiflora (passionflower)PassifloraceaeOther
Passiflora edulis (passionfruit)PassifloraceaeOther
Pelargonium (pelargoniums)GeraniaceaeOther
PellaeaPteridaceaeOther
PellioniaUrticaceaeOther
PeperomiaPiperaceaeOther
PereskiaCactaceaeOther
PerseaLauraceaeOther
Persea americana (avocado)LauraceaeOther
PhalaenopsisOrchidaceaeOther
Phellodendron (cork tree)RutaceaeOther
PhilodendronAraceaeOther
Phoenix (date palm)ArecaceaeOther
PhyllitisAspleniaceaeOther
Physalis (Groundcherry)SolanaceaeOther
PileaUrticaceaeOther
PimentaMyrtaceaeOther
Pinus (pines)PinaceaeOther
PisoniaNyctaginaceaeOther
PistaciaAnacardiaceaeOther
PittosporumPittosporaceaeOther
Platanus (planes)PlatanaceaeOther
Platycerium (staghorn-fern)PolypodiaceaeOther
Plumeria (frangipani)ApocynaceaeOther
PodocarpusPodocarpaceaeOther
Polypodium (Plantae)PolypodiaceaeOther
PoncirusRutaceaeOther
Populus (poplars)SalicaceaeOther
Portulaca (Purslane)PortulacaceaeOther
Primula (Primrose)PrimulaceaeOther
Prunus (stone fruit)RosaceaeOther
PseuderanthemumAcanthaceaeOther
Psidium (guava)MyrtaceaeOther
PterisPteridaceaeOther
PuerariaFabaceaeOther
PunicaPunicaceaeOther
Punica granatum (pomegranate)PunicaceaeOther
Pyracantha (Firethorn)RosaceaeOther
PyrostegiaBignoniaceaeOther
Pyrus (pears)RosaceaeOther
RhaphiolepisRosaceaeOther
Rhododendron (Azalea)EricaceaeOther
Rhoicissus (african grape)VitaceaeOther
Rhus (Sumach)AnacardiaceaeOther
RicinusEuphorbiaceaeOther
Robinia (locust)FabaceaeOther
Rosa (roses)RosaceaeOther
Rubus (blackberry, raspberry)RosaceaeOther
RuelliaAcanthaceaeOther
Sabal (palmetto-palm)ArecaceaeOther
Saintpaulia (african violet)GesneriaceaeOther
Salix (willows)SalicaceaeOther
Salvia (sage)LamiaceaeOther
Sambucus (Elderberry)CaprifoliaceaeOther
SancheziaAcanthaceaeOther
SantalumSantalaceaeOther
SapiumEuphorbiaceaeOther
Schefflera (umbrella tree)AraliaceaeOther
Schinus (pepper tree)AnacardiaceaeOther
ScindapsusAraceaeOther
Sedum (stonecrop)CrassulaceaeOther
SelaginellaOther
Sempervivum (house-leek)CrassulaceaeOther
Senecio (Groundsel)AsteraceaeOther
Solanum (nightshade)SolanaceaeOther
Solidago (Goldenrod)AsteraceaeOther
SophoraFabaceaeOther
SpartiumFabaceaeOther
Spondias (purple mombin)AnacardiaceaeOther
Stenocarpus (Firewheel tree)ProteaceaeOther
StephanotisAsclepiadaceaeOther
StrelitziaStrelitziaceaeOther
StreptocarpusGesneriaceaeOther
SyngoniumAraceaeOther
SyzygiumMyrtaceaeOther
Taxus (yew)TaxaceaeOther
TecomaBignoniaceaeOther
TerminaliaCombretaceaeOther
TetrapanaxAraliaceaeOther
TheobromaSterculiaceaeOther
Tilia (limes)TiliaceaeOther
TillandsiaBromeliaceaeOther
ToonaMeliaceaeOther
Typha (reedmace)TyphaceaeOther
UmbellulariaLauraceaeOther
UrenaMalvaceaeOther
Vaccinium (blueberries)EricaceaeOther
VandaOrchidaceaeOther
ViburnumCaprifoliaceaeOther
Vinca (periwinkle)ApocynaceaeOther
Viola (violet)ViolaceaeOther
VitexLamiaceaeOther
Vitis (grape)VitaceaeOther
Washingtonia (wshington-palm)ArecaceaeOther
WisteriaFabaceaeOther
YuccaAgavaceaeOther
ZamiaZamiaceaeOther
Zantedeschia (calla-lilies)AraceaeOther
Zanthoxylum (prickly-ash)RutaceaeOther
Zephyranthes (Zephyrlily)AmaryllidaceaeOther

Growth Stages

Top of pageFlowering stage, Fruiting stage, Vegetative growing stage

List of Symptoms

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SignLife StagesType

Leaves

honeydew or sooty mould

Stems

external feeding

Natural Enemies

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Natural enemyTypeLife stagesSpecificityReferencesBiological control inBiological control on
Amblyseius swirskiiPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Anagyrus pseudococciParasite
Aphytis chilensisParasite
Aphytis hispanicusParasite
Brumoides suturalisPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Cheiloneurus paraliaParasite
Cheiloneurus praenitensParasite
Chilocorus nigritaPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Chilocorus renipustulatusPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Coccophagus ceroplastaeParasiteAdults/NymphsAustraliafruit trees
Coccophagus lycimniaParasiteAdults/NymphsAustralia; Republic of Georgiafruit trees
Coccophagus matsuyamensisParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Coccophagus pulvinariaeParasiteAdults/NymphsUSA
Coccophagus scutellarisParasiteAdults/NymphsCanada; Republic of Georgiaornamental woody plants
Coccophagus semicircularisParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Coccophagus silvestriiParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Cryptolaemus montrouzieriPredator
Encarsia inaronParasite
Encyrtus albidusParasite
Encyrtus lecaniorumParasiteRepublic of Georgia
Euxanthellus adustusParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Exochomus quadripustulatusPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Laetilia coccidivoraPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Marietta leopardinaParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Mataeomera dubiaPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Metaphycus flavusParasiteAdults/NymphsUSSR
Metaphycus helvolusParasite
Metaphycus hesperidumParasite
Metaphycus luteolusParasiteAdults/NymphsUSSR
Metaphycus stanleyiParasiteAdults/NymphsCanada; USAornamental woody plants
Metaphycus swirskiiParasite
Microterys ditaeniatusParasite
Microterys flavusParasiteAustralia; New Zealand; Texas; USSRCitrus; fruit trees
Microterys nietneriParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Pachyneuron muscarumParasite
Promuscidea unfasciativentrisParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Pseudoscymnus dwipakalpaPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Rhyzobius forestieriPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Rhyzobius lophanthaePredatorAdults/Eggs/Larvae/Nymphs/Pupae
Signiphora flavopalliataParasite
Timberlakiella applanatonervusParasiteAdults/Nymphs

References

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Andison H, 1940. The soft scale (Coccus hesperidum) infesting holly on Vancouver Island. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, 36:3-5.

Annecke DP, 1964. The encyrtid and aphelinid parasites (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) of soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in South Africa. Entomological Memoirs. Pretoria, Republic of South Africa: Government Printer.

Annecke DP, 1966. Biological studies of the immature stages of, soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus (Homoptera: Coccidae). South African Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 9:205-228.

Annecke DP, Moran VC, 1982. Insects and mites of cultivated plants in South Africa. Durban, South Africa: Butterworths.

APPPC, 1987. Insect pests of economic significance affecting major crops of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region. Technical Document No. 135. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific region (RAPA).

Avidov Z, 1970. Pests of the Cultivated Plants of Israel. Jerusalem, Israel: Magnes Press.

Avidov Z, Harpaz I, 1969. Plant pests of Israel. Jerusalem, Israel: Israel Universities Press.

Basheer AM, Asslan L, Saleh A, Diab N, Mohamed E, 2016. Scale insect species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in Syria. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 46(2):305-307. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2338

Ben-Dov Y, 1993. A systematic catalogue of the soft scale insects of the world (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) with data on geographical distribution, host plants, biology and economic importance. Gainesville, USA: Sandhill Crane Press, Inc., 536 pp.

Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, 1997. Soft scale insects: their biology, natural enemies and control. Volume 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers, xxiv + 452 pp.

Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, 1997. Soft scale insects: their biology, natural enemies and control. Volume 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers, xvi + 442 pp.

BENNETT FD, HUGHES IW, 1959. Biological control of insect pests in Bermuda. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 50(pt. 3):423-436 pp.

Blumberg D, 1997. Encapsulation of parasitoids. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 375-387.

Bodenheimer FS, 1951. Citrus Entomology in the Middle East. The Hague, Netherlands: Dr WJ Junk & S Gravenhage.

Bohlen E, 1973. Crop pests in Tanzania and their control. Berlin, Germany: Verlag Paul Parey.

Borchsenius NS, 1957. Subtribe mealybugs and scales (Coccoidea). Soft scale insects Coccidae. Vol. IX. (In Russian). Fauna SSSR. Zoologicheskii Institut Academii Nauk SSSR NS, 66:1-493.

Campbell MM, 1972. Observations on the effects of high density populations of spiders. Principally an Ixeuticus sp., on the control of Aonidiella aurantii Mask by Aphytis melinus, DeBach. Experimental Record of the Department of Agriculture, South Australia, No. 7:43

CIE, 1972. Commonwealth Institute of Entomology Distribution Maps of Pests: Coccus hesperidum. Map No. 92. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Darvas B, 1997. Insect development and reproduction disrupters. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 165-182.

Darvas B, Virag EJ, 1983. The effectivity of kinoprene and hydroprene against scale insects (Pseudococcidae, Coccidae, Diaspididae) damaging glasshouse ornamentals. Novenyvedelem, 19(10):455-463

Das GM, Ganguli RN, 1961. Coccoids on tea in north-east India. Indian Journal of Entomology, 23:245-256.

De Lotto G, 1957. On some Ethiopian species of the genus Coccus (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 20:295-314.

De Lotto G, 1959. Further notes on Ethiopian species of the genus Coccus (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 22:150-173.

De Lotto G, 1960. The green scales of coffee in Africa south of the Sahara (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 51:389-403.

De Villiers EA, Myburgh AC, 1987. Papaya pests; granadilla pests. In: Myburgh AC, ed. Crop Pests in Southern Africa, Vol. 2. Citrus and other subtropicals. Pretoria, South Africa: Plant Protection Research Institute, 18-19.

De Villiers EA, Van den Berg MA, 1987a. Soft and wax scales. In: Myburgh AC, ed. Crop Pests in Southern Africa, Vol. 2. Citrus and other subtropicals. Pretoria, South Africa: Plant Protection Research Institute, 33-37.

De Villiers EA, Van den Berg MA, 1987b. Avocado insects of South Africa. South Africa Avocado Growers' Association Yearbook, 10:75-79.

Ebeling W, 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. Los Angeles, USA: University of California.

Essig EO, 1958. Insects and Mites of Western North America. New York, USA: The MacMillan Co.

Evans HC, Hywel-Jones NL, 1997. Entomopathogenic fungi. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 3-27.

Fernandes IM, 1973. Alguns Coccoidea (Homoptera) do Arquipélago de Cabo Verde. Memorias. Junta de InvestigatSe do Ultramar, Lisboa, 58:251-269.

Fonseca JC, 1953. Contribuit¦o para o estudo do Coccus hesperidum L. (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). I - Estudo sistematico e morfologico. Broteria, Lisboa, 22:5-53, 97-114.

Giliomee JH, 1967. Morphology and taxonomy of adult males of the family Coccidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Entomology, Supplement, 7:1-168.

Gill RJ, 1988. The Scale Insects of California, Part I. The Soft Scales (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Sacramento, California, USA: California Department of Food, Agriculture.

Gill RJ, Nakahara S, Williams ML, 1977. A review of the genus Coccus Linnpus in America North of Panama (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Occasional Papers in Entomology, California Department of Food and Agriculture, No. 24:44 pp.

Gomez-Menor Ortega J, 1958. Cochinillas que atacen a los frutales (Homoptera: Coccoidea: II. Familias Lecanidae y Margarodidae). Boletin de patologia Vegetal y Entomologia Agricola, Madrid, 23:43-173.

Gonzalez RH, 1989. Insects and mites of agricultural and quarantine importance in Chile. Santiago, Chile: Universidad de Chile, 310 pp.

Gullan PJ, 1997. Relationships with ants. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 351-373.

Hammon AB, Williams ML, 1984. Arthropods of Florida and Neighbouring Land Areas. Vol. 11. The soft scales insects of Florida (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Florida Department of Agriculture, Consumer Services. Contribution 600. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Florida Department of Agriculture.

Harris KM, 1997. Cecidomyiidae and other Diptera. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 61-68.

Hart WG, 1972. Compensatory releases of Microterys flavus as a biological control agent against brown soft scale. Environmental Entomology, 1:414-419.

Hart WG, 1983. Factors influencing the population dynamics of Brown Soft Scale, Coccus hesperidum L. in South Texas. PhD Thesis. Texas, USA: Texas A&M University.

Hart WG, Ingle S, Garza M, Mata M, 1966. The response of brown soft scale and its parasites to repeated insecticide pressure. Journal of the Rio Grande Valley Horticultural Society, 20:64-68.

Hayat M, 1997. Aphelinidae. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 111-145.

Henderson RC, Sultan A, Robertson AW, 2010. Scale insect fauna (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea) of New Zealand's pygmy mistletoes (Korthalsella: Viscaceae) with description of three new species: Leucaspis albotecta, L. trilobata (Diaspididae) and Eriococcus korthalsellae (Eriococcidae). Zootaxa, 2644:1-24. http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2010/f/z02644p024f.pdf

Herting B, Simmonds FJ, 1972. A catalogue of parasites and predators of Terrestrial Arthropods. Section A, Host or prey/enemy. Homoptera. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

Hodgson CJ, 1967. Notes on Rhodesian Coccidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea): Part I. The genera Coccus, Parasaissetia, Saissetia and a new genus Mashona. Arnoldia (Rhodesia), 3(5):1-22.

Hodgson CJ, 1994. The scale insect family Coccidae: an identification manual to genera. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 639 pp.

Kawai S, 1980. Scale Insects of Japan in Colours. Tokyo, Japan: National Agriculture Education Association, 455 pp.

Kfir R, Rosen D, 1980. Biological studies of Microterys flavus (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a primary parasite of soft scales. Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 43(2):223-237

Khadzhibeli ZK, 1983. The importance of intraspecific variability for the determination of scale insects. In: Gelovani LV, ed. Fauna i ekologiya bespozvonochnykh zhivotnykh Gruzii "Metsniereba" Tbilisi USSR, 178-195

Kondo T, Muñoz JA, 2016. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) associated with avocado crop, Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) in Valle del Cauca and neighboring departments of Colombia. Insecta Mundi, No.0465:1-24. http://centerforsystematicentomology.org/default.asp?action=insectamundi&id=insecta_new&year=2016

Krombein KV, Hurd PD Jr, Smith DR, Burks BD, 1979. Catalog of Hymenoptera in America north of Mexico. Volume 1. Symphyta and Apocrita (Parasitica). Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1-1198.

Mahmood R, Mohyuddin AI, 1986. Integrated control of mango pests. Islamabad, Pakistan: Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council.

Malumphy C, 2016. Six non-native species of scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) new for Belgium. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 152(4):245-251. http://www.pemberleybooks.com

Marotta S, 1997. General Life History. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 251-256.

Merrill GB, 1953. A revision of the scale insects of Florida. Florida State Plant Board Bulletin, 1:1-143.

Mibey RK, 1997. Soot moulds. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 275-290.

Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería Servicio Fitosanitario del Estado (Costa Rica), 2009. Listado de Plagas (insectos y ácaros) en cultivos de importancia económica en Costa Rica (C). http://www.protecnet.go.cr/laboratorios/plagcul/cultivoc.htm

Muniappan R, Watson GW, Vaughan L, Gilbertson R, Noussourou M, 2012. New records of mealybugs, scale insects, and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha) from Mali and Senegal. Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology, 28(1):1-7. http://scentsoc.org/Volumes/JAUE/28/28001.pdf

Nakao SI, Takagi S, Tachikawa T, Wongsiri T, 1977. Scale insects collected on citrus and other plants and their hymenopterous parasites in Thailand. Insecta Matsumurana, 11:61-72

Oncuer C, 1974. The Coccus species (Homoptera: Coccidae) damaging Citrus groves in the Aegean region; studies on their morphological characters, distribution and natural enemies. Bitki Koruma Bulteni, Suppl. 1:59 pp.

Oncuer C, 1977. Investigations on the identification, distribution and effectiveness of the families of the natural enemies associated with the most important species of scale insects (Coccidae, Homoptera) causing damage to fruit trees in the Province of Izmir. Ege Universitesi Ziraat Fakultesi Yayinlari, 336:129 pp.

Paik WH, 1978. Insecta VI. Coccoidea. (In Korean). Illustrated Flora and Fauna of Korea 22:1-481.

Panis A, 1977. Bioecology of the common citrus scale in the Mediterranean region (Homoptera, Coccidea, Coccidae). Boletin del Servicio de Defensa contra Plagas e Inspeccion Fitopatologica, 3:157-160

Panis A, 1980. Scale insects (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Coccidae) within the framework of integrated control in Mediterranean citrus culture. Revue de Zoologie Agricole et de Pathologie Vegetale, 79:12-22

Papadopoulou SC, 2012. Coccus hesperidum (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on Ocimum basilicum: a new record of host plant in Greece. Hellenic Plant Protection Journal, 5(1):23-25. http://en.bpi.gr/files/journal/2012/january/Volume%205%20-%20Issue%201%20%28January%202012%29.pdf

Peck O, 1963. A catalogue of the Nearctic Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Canadian Entomologist, Supplement 30:1-1092.

Ponsonby DJ, Copland MJW, 1997. Coccinellidae and other Coleoptera. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 29-60.

Prinsloo GL, 1997. Encyrtidae. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 69-109.

Quayle HJ, 1938. Soft Brown Scale, Coccus hesperidum L. In: Insects of Citrus and other Subtropical Fruits. Ithaca, New York, USA: Comstock Publishing Co., Inc., 96-101.

Reddy SGE, Ruchi Sharma, 2015. First report of scale insects as pests of Kangra tea in Himachal Pradesh, India. Current Biotica, 9(3):289-292. http://www.currentbiotica.com/CB/Journals9-Issue-III/CB-9-3-Short-notes-4.pdf

Reed DK, Hart WG, Ingle SJ, 1968. Laboratory rearing of soft brown scale and its hymenopterous parasites. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 61:1443-1446.

Rose M, Stauffer S, 1997. Laboratory and mass rearing. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 397-419.

Rosen D, 1967. On the relationship between ants and parasites of coccids and aphids on citrus. Beitrage zur Entomologie, 17:281-286.

Saakyan-Baranova AA, 1964. On the biology of the soft scale Coccus hesperidum L. (Homoptera: Coccoidea). (In Russian). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye, 43:268-296.

Sisman S, Ülgentürk S, 2010. Scale insects species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 34(2):219-224. http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/zoology/

Stauffer S, Rose M, 1997. Biological control of soft scale insects in interior plantscapes in the USA. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 183-205.

Suroshe SS, Jyotsana Sharma, Singh NV, Pal RK, 2016. New report of insect pests and their natural enemies in pomegranate. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 73(3):445-448. http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:ijh&type=home

Swirski E, Ben-Dov, Y, Wysoki, M, 1997. Other subtropical fruit trees. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 271-292.

Talhouk AMS, 1975. Citrus pests throughout the World. Ciba-Geigy Agrochemicals, Technical Monograph, 4:21.

Tang FT, Li J, 1988. Observations on the Coccoidea of Inner Mongolia in China. China: Inner Mongolia University Press.

Tao CC, Wong C, Chang Y, 1983. Monograph of Coccidae of Taiwan, Republic of China (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Journal of Taiwan Museum, 36(1):57-107

Tereznikova EM, 1981. Scale Insects. Eriococcidae, Kermesidae and Coccidae. (In Ukrainian). Fauna Ukraini. Akademyiya Nauk Ukrainskoi RSR. Institut Zoologii, Kiev, 20:1-215.

Tremblay E, 1997. Endosymbionts. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 261-267.

Viggiani G, 1997. Eulophidae, Pteromalidae, Eupelmidae and Signiphoridae. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7B. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 147-158.

Vranjic JA, 1997. Effects on host plant. In: Ben-Dov Y, Hodgson CJ, eds. Soft Scale Insects, their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests, Vol 7A. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Press, 323-336.

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Watson GW, Muniappan R, Shepard BM, Sembel DT, Rauf A, Carner GR, Benson EP, 2014. Sap-sucking insect records (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha and Thysanoptera: Thripidae) from Indonesia. Florida Entomologist, 97(4):1594-1597. http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/

Williams DJ, Watson GW, 1990. The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific region. Part 3: the soft scales (Coccidae) and other families. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 267 pp.

Williams ML, Kosztarab M, 1972. Morphology and systematics of the Coccidae of Virginia with notes on their biology (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Research Division Bulletin of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, 74:1-215.

Distribution Maps

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Distribution map Afghanistan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Armenia: Present
CIE, 1972Armenia: Present
CIE, 1972Angola: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Argentina: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993American Samoa: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Austria: PresentAustralia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Australia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAzerbaijan: Present
Hayat, 1997Azerbaijan: Present
Hayat, 1997Barbados: PresentBarbados: PresentBangladesh: Present
CIE, 1972Belgium: Present, introduced
Malumphy, 2016; Ben-Dov, 1993Burkina Faso: Present
CIE, 1972Bulgaria: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Bermuda: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Brazil: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Brazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil
See regional map for distribution within the countryBahamas: PresentBahamas: PresentBhutan: PresentBelize: PresentBelize: PresentCanada: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Canada
See regional map for distribution within the countryCentral African Republic: Present
Hayat, 1997Congo: PresentCôte d'Ivoire: Present
CIE, 1972Cook Islands: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Chile: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Chile
See regional map for distribution within the countryCameroon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993China: Present
CIE, 1972China: Present
CIE, 1972China
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryColombia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Kondo & Muñoz, 2016Colombia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Kondo & Muñoz, 2016Costa Rica: Present
CIE, 1972; Costa Rica: Present
CIE, 1972; Cuba: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cuba: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cape Verde: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cyprus: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Sisman & Ülgentürk, 2010Cyprus: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Sisman & Ülgentürk, 2010Germany: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Denmark: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Dominica: PresentAlgeria: Present
Hayat, 1997Algeria: Present
Hayat, 1997Ecuador: Present
CIE, 1972Egypt: Present
CIE, 1972Spain: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Spain: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Spain
See regional map for distribution within the countrySpain
See regional map for distribution within the countryEthiopia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Fiji: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993France: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993France
See regional map for distribution within the countryUK: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993UK
See regional map for distribution within the countryGeorgia (Republic of): Present
Hayat, 1997Georgia (Republic of): Present
Hayat, 1997Ghana: Present
CIE, 1972Gambia: Present
CIE, 1972Guadeloupe: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Greece: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Papadopoulou, 2012Greece: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Papadopoulou, 2012Guatemala: Present
CIE, 1972Guatemala: Present
CIE, 1972Guyana: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Guyana: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Honduras: Present
CIE, 1972Honduras: Present
CIE, 1972Hungary: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Indonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIsrael: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Israel: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993India: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993India
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIraq: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iraq: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iraq: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iran: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iran: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iran: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Italy: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Jamaica: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Jamaica: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Japan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Japan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryJapan
See regional map for distribution within the countryKenya: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Kiribati: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Korea, DPR: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Korea, Republic of: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Lebanon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Lebanon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Lebanon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saint Lucia: PresentSri Lanka: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Libya: Present
CIE, 1972Morocco: Present
Hayat, 1997Morocco: Present
Hayat, 1997Marshall Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Mali: Present
CIE, 1972; Muniappan et al., 2012Myanmar: Present
CIE, 1972Northern Mariana Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Malta: Present
CIE, 1972Malta: Present
CIE, 1972Mauritius: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Maldives: PresentMalawi: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Mexico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Mexico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Malaysia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Malaysia
See regional map for distribution within the countryMalaysia
See regional map for distribution within the countryMozambique: Present
Hayat, 1997New Caledonia: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Niger: Present
CIE, 1972Norfolk Island: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Nigeria: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Nicaragua: Present
CIE, 1972Nicaragua: Present
CIE, 1972Nicaragua: Present
CIE, 1972Netherlands: PresentNepal: Present
CIE, 1972Niue: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990New Zealand: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Henderson et al., 2010Oman: PresentOman: PresentPanama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Peru: Present
Ponsonby & Copland, 1997French Polynesia: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Papua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Papua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Philippines: Present
Gill et al., 1977; Swirski et al., 1997Philippines: Present
Gill et al., 1977; Swirski et al., 1997Pakistan: Present
Swirski et al., 1997Poland: PresentPuerto Rico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Puerto Rico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Portugal: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Portugal
See regional map for distribution within the countryPortugal
See regional map for distribution within the countryPortugal
See regional map for distribution within the countryPalau: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Palau: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Paraguay: Present
Hayat, 1997Réunion: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Romania: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saudi Arabia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saudi Arabia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Solomon Islands: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Seychelles: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Sudan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Sweden: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saint Helena: Present
CIE, 1972Saint Helena
See regional map for distribution within the countrySierra Leone: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Senegal: Present
Hayat, 1997Somalia: Present
CIE, 1972Suriname: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Suriname: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993El Salvador: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993El Salvador: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Syria: Present
CIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016Syria: Present
CIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016Syria: Present
CIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016Togo: Present
CIE, 1972Thailand: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tajikistan: Present
CIE, 1972Turkmenistan: Present
CIE, 1972Tunisia: Present
CIE, 1972Tunisia: Present
CIE, 1972Tonga: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Turkey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Turkey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Turkey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Trinidad and Tobago: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Trinidad and Tobago: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tuvalu: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Taiwan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Taiwan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tanzania: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tanzania
See regional map for distribution within the countryUkraine
See regional map for distribution within the countryUganda: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993USA: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993USA: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993USA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUruguay: Present
CIE, 1972Venezuela: Present
CIE, 1972Venezuela: Present
CIE, 1972United States Virgin Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Vietnam: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Vanuatu: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Samoa: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Yugoslavia (former): Present
Ben-Dov, 1993South Africa: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Zambia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Congo Democratic Republic: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Zimbabwe: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993
  • = Present, no further details
  • = Evidence of pathogen
  • = Widespread
  • = Last reported
  • = Localised
  • = Presence unconfirmed
  • = Confined and subject to quarantine
  • = See regional map for distribution within the country
  • = Occasional or few reports
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Distribution map (asia) Afghanistan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Armenia: Present
CIE, 1972Azerbaijan: Present
Hayat, 1997Bangladesh: Present
CIE, 1972Bhutan: PresentChina: Present
CIE, 1972Hong Kong: PresentTibet: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Georgia (Republic of): Present
Hayat, 1997Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Irian Jaya: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Java: Present
CIE, 1972Sulawesi: Present
Watson et al., 2014Sumatra: Present
CIE, 1972Israel: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993India: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Andhra Pradesh: PresentAssam: PresentBihar: PresentDelhi: PresentGujarat: PresentHimachal Pradesh: Present
Reddy & Ruchi, 2015Jammu and Kashmir: Present
CIE, 1972Kerala: PresentKarnataka: PresentMaharashtra: Present
Suroshe et al., 2016Madhya Pradesh: PresentOdisha: PresentIndian Punjab: PresentTamil Nadu: PresentUttar Pradesh: PresentWest Bengal: PresentIraq: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iran: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Japan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Honshu: Present
CIE, 1972Kyushu: Present
CIE, 1972Ryukyu Archipelago: Present
CIE, 1972Shikoku: Present
CIE, 1972Korea, DPR: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Korea, Republic of: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Lebanon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Sri Lanka: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Myanmar: Present
CIE, 1972Maldives: PresentMalaysia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Sabah: PresentSarawak: Present
CIE, 1972Nepal: Present
CIE, 1972Oman: PresentPapua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Philippines: Present
Gill et al., 1977; Swirski et al., 1997Pakistan: Present
Swirski et al., 1997Palau: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saudi Arabia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Syria: Present
CIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016Thailand: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tajikistan: Present
CIE, 1972Turkmenistan: Present
CIE, 1972Turkey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Taiwan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Vietnam: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993
Distribution map (europe) Armenia: Present
CIE, 1972Austria: PresentAzerbaijan: Present
Hayat, 1997Belgium: Present, introduced
Malumphy, 2016; Ben-Dov, 1993Bulgaria: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cyprus: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Sisman & Ülgentürk, 2010Germany: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Denmark: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Algeria: Present
Hayat, 1997Spain: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Balearic Islands: Present
CIE, 1972France: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Corsica: Present
CIE, 1972UK: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Channel Islands: PresentGeorgia (Republic of): Present
Hayat, 1997Greece: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Papadopoulou, 2012Hungary: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iraq: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iran: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Italy: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Lebanon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Morocco: Present
Hayat, 1997Malta: Present
CIE, 1972Netherlands: PresentPoland: PresentPortugal: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Azores: Present
CIE, 1972Madeira: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Romania: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Sweden: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Syria: Present
CIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016Tunisia: Present
CIE, 1972Turkey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Krymskaya Oblast: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Yugoslavia (former): Present
Ben-Dov, 1993
Distribution map (africa) Angola: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Burkina Faso: Present
CIE, 1972Central African Republic: Present
Hayat, 1997Congo: PresentCôte d'Ivoire: Present
CIE, 1972Cameroon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cape Verde: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cyprus: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Sisman & Ülgentürk, 2010Algeria: Present
Hayat, 1997Egypt: Present
CIE, 1972Spain: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Canary Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Ethiopia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Ghana: Present
CIE, 1972Gambia: Present
CIE, 1972Greece: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Papadopoulou, 2012Israel: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iraq: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iran: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Kenya: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Lebanon: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Libya: Present
CIE, 1972Morocco: Present
Hayat, 1997Mali: Present
CIE, 1972; Muniappan et al., 2012Malta: Present
CIE, 1972Mauritius: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Malawi: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Mozambique: Present
Hayat, 1997Niger: Present
CIE, 1972Nigeria: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Oman: PresentMadeira: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Réunion: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saudi Arabia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Seychelles: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Sudan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saint Helena: Present
CIE, 1972Ascension: PresentSierra Leone: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Senegal: Present
Hayat, 1997Somalia: Present
CIE, 1972Syria: Present
CIE, 1972; Basheer et al., 2016Togo: Present
CIE, 1972Tunisia: Present
CIE, 1972Turkey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tanzania: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Zanzibar: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Uganda: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993South Africa: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Zambia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Congo Democratic Republic: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Zimbabwe: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993
Distribution map (north america) Bermuda: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Bahamas: PresentBelize: PresentCanada: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993British Columbia: Present
CIE, 1972Cuba: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Guatemala: Present
CIE, 1972Honduras: Present
CIE, 1972Jamaica: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Mexico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Nicaragua: Present
CIE, 1972Puerto Rico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993El Salvador: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993USA: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Alabama: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984Arizona: Present
CIE, 1972California: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Florida: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Georgia: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984Hawaii: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Iowa: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Louisiana: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984Maryland: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Missouri: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Mississippi: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984North Carolina: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984New Mexico: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984Oregon: Present
CIE, 1972Pennsylvania: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984South Carolina: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984Tennessee: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Texas: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Utah: PresentVirginia: Present
Hammon & Williams, 1984Washington: Present
CIE, 1972West Virginia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Wyoming: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993
Distribution map (central america) Barbados: PresentBahamas: PresentBelize: PresentColombia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Kondo & Muñoz, 2016Costa Rica: Present
CIE, 1972; Cuba: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Dominica: PresentGuadeloupe: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Guatemala: Present
CIE, 1972Guyana: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Honduras: Present
CIE, 1972Jamaica: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Saint Lucia: PresentMexico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Nicaragua: Present
CIE, 1972Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Puerto Rico: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Suriname: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993El Salvador: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Trinidad and Tobago: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993USA: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Florida: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Venezuela: Present
CIE, 1972United States Virgin Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993
Distribution map (south america) Argentina: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Barbados: PresentBrazil: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Amazonas: Present
CIE, 1972Bahia: Present
CIE, 1972Para: Present
CIE, 1972Rio de Janeiro: Present
CIE, 1972Rio Grande do Sul: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Santa Catarina: Present
CIE, 1972Sao Paulo: Present
CIE, 1972Chile: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Easter Island: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990Colombia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Kondo & Muñoz, 2016Costa Rica: Present
CIE, 1972; Ecuador: Present
CIE, 1972Guyana: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Nicaragua: Present
CIE, 1972Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Peru: Present
Ponsonby & Copland, 1997Paraguay: Present
Hayat, 1997Suriname: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Trinidad and Tobago: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Uruguay: Present
CIE, 1972Venezuela: Present
CIE, 1972
Distribution map (pacific) American Samoa: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Australia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Australian Northern Territory: Present
CIE, 1972New South Wales: PresentQueensland: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993South Australia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Tasmania: Present
CIE, 1972Western Australia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Cook Islands: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993China: Present
CIE, 1972Fiji: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Irian Jaya: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Sulawesi: Present
Watson et al., 2014Kiribati: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Marshall Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Northern Mariana Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993New Caledonia: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Norfolk Island: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Niue: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990New Zealand: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; Henderson et al., 2010French Polynesia: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Papua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Philippines: Present
Gill et al., 1977; Swirski et al., 1997Palau: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Solomon Islands: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Tonga: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Tuvalu: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Taiwan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Vanuatu: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993Samoa: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993