Calopogonium caeruleum (jicama)

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Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title C. caeruleum in young rubber Caption As cover crop in young rubber, Indonesia. Copyright ©P.J. Terry/LARS	C. caeruleum in young rubber	As cover crop in young rubber, Indonesia.	©P.J. Terry/LARS

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Calopogonium caeruleum (Benth) Sauvalle

Preferred Common Name

• jicama

Other Scientific Names

• Calopogonium coeruleum (Benth.) Sauvalle
• Calopogonium coeruleum var. glabrescens (Benth.) Malme
• Calopogonium sericeum (Benth.) Chodat & Hassl.
• Calopogonium sericeum f. glabrescens Chodat & Hassl.
• Calopogonium sericeum var. villicalyx Chodat & Hassl.
• Stenolobium caeruleum Benth
• Stenolobium caeruleum var. sericeum Benth.

International Common Names

• English: calopo; calopogonium

Local Common Names

• Brazil: feijao-bravo; feijao-de-macaco; feijaozinho-da-mata
• Central America: bejuco de lavar; chorreque; falso pica-pica
• Cuba: ahorca perro; bejuco culebra; frijol boniato; jícama cimarrona; jíquima; mata potrero
• Dominican Republic: haba de burro
• Suriname: klein kau; namie napirang
• Thailand: thua sealulium

Summary of Invasiveness

C. caeruleum is a vigorous woody vine widely introduced in agroforestry systems to be used as a cover crop (Cook et al., 2005). It has escaped from cultivation and become a weed in pastures and disturbed areas in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This fast-growing vine has a considerable weed potential and it often smothers desirable grasses and other understorey species in plantation crops. It has also invaded seasonally wet tropical environments (Cook et al., 2005; PIER, 2014). It is listed as invasive in Hawaii, Cuba, and Christmas Island (Swarbrick, 1997; Starr et al., 2003; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). 

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Fabales
•                         Family: Fabaceae
•                             Genus: Calopogonium
•                                 Species: Calopogonium caeruleum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Fabaceae is one the largest families of flowering plants. This family includes about 745 genera and 19,500 species which can be found throughout the world growing in a great variety of climates and environments (Stevens, 2012). Species within the subfamiliy Faboideae (also known as Papilionoideae) are trees, shrubs, and herbs that may be easily recognized by their classical pea-shaped flowers and the frequent occurrence of root nodulation (Stevens, 2012). The genus Calopogonium includes nine accepted species native to tropical continental America and widely naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. 

Description

Perennial, woody vine, twining, with many lateral branches, attaining 10 m in length. Stems slender, cylindrical, villous-pubescent on the younger parts. Leaves alternate, trifoliolate; leaflets chartaceous, 5-10.5 × 3-8 cm, the apex obtuse or less frequently rounded, the base of the distal leaflet cuneate, that of the lateral ones asymmetrical and obtuse-truncate, the margins undulate, revolute; upper surface dark green, dull, pubescent, especially on the sunken venation; lower surface pale green, pubescent, with the venation yellowish, prominent. Inflorescences of axillary pseudoracemes, 12-45 cm long, with 4-5 flowers grouped on small mounds along the rachis; rachis thick, cylindrical, pubescent; pedicels ca. 5 mm long, pubescent. Calyx campanulate, 5-7 mm long, appressed-pubescent, the sepals lanceolate, 2.5-4 mm long; corolla blue, the standard ca. 1 cm long, oblanceolate. Legume tomentose, 3-8 × 0.7-1.0 cm, flattened, with the margins compressed between the seeds and the calyx persistent at the base, 3-10 seeds per legume. Seeds almost square, reddish brown, shiny, 4-5 mm wide (Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2005).

Plant Type

Distribution

C. caeruleum is native to tropical America, from Mexico to Argentina and in the West Indies (USDA-ARS, 2014). However, for the West Indies, some authors consider that this species was introduced and later became naturalized (Graveson, 2012; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012).   

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

C. caeruleum has been widely introduced in agroforestry systems in Asia, Australia, Africa, and across America to be used as a cover crop and soil improver species (Cook et al., 2005). However, the dates of introduction are not reported in the literature. 

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction of C. caeruleum is moderate to high. This species has been widely introduced in agroforestry systems around the world and it has demonstrated that it has the potential to escape from cultivation and become naturalized and invasive in many habitats. In addition, it spreads by seeds which can remain viable for several years in the soil (Swarbrick, 1997). 

Habitat

C. caeruleum is a common element in agroforestry systems (Cook et al., 2005). It also grows in moist pastures, plantations, and in disturbed sites at lower and middle elevations (Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2005).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

C. caeruleum is a weed of tropical plantation crops, often smothering desirable grasses and other understorey species (Cook et al., 2005). 

Biology and Ecology

Physiology and Phenology

In the West Indies, C. caeruleum has been recorded flowering from November to February and fruiting from February to April (Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2005).

Associations

C. caeruleum is planted as a cover crop in Southeast Asian plantation agriculture, often in a species mixture with one or more of the following species: (1) C. mucunoides, (2) Centrosema molle, (3) Pueraria phaseoloides, and (4) Desmodium ovalifolium. It is also planted with Guinea grass Megathyrsus maximus in pastures and in coconut and oil palm plantations (Middleton and Mellor, 1982; Cook et al., 2005).

Environmental Requirements

C. caeruleum is adapted to humid conditions and grows best in areas with mean annual temperatures ranging from 18ºC to 25ºC and mean annual rainfall ranging from 1000 to 3000 mm, but it can survive in habitats with 700 mm of annual rainfall.  It grows on a wide range of soil types and with pH as low as 4.0. It grows best on well-drained soils. This species is tolerant of heavy shade (Cook et al., 2005). 

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil reaction

• acid

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile

Natural Enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

The fungal pathogens Cercospora leafspot, anthracnose, and Rhizoctonia foliar blight have been identified on C. caeruleum in Colombia (Cook et al., 2005).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

C. caeruleum spreads mostly by seeds. However, under favourable conditions, it can also spread from stolons and rooting at the nodes (Cook et al., 2005). Seeds are ejected short distances from the pods which twist upon drying and can viable for several years in the soil (Swarbrick, 1997).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

C. caeruleum is a weed of tropical plantation crops. In pastures, it often smothers desirable grasses and becomes the dominant species, aided by companion grasses being grazed in preference to this unpalatable legume (Cook et al., 2005).

Environmental Impact

C. caeruleum is a weed with the potential to form dense mats that smother native vegetation as well as crops. It has become invasive in seasonally wet tropical environments, as well as in natural areas in Hawaii, Christmas Island, and Cuba (Starr et al., 2003; Cook et al., 2005; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2014). 

Risk and Impact Factors

Impact mechanisms

• Competition
• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Rapid growth

Impact outcomes

• Altered trophic level
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Host damage
• Modification of nutrient regime
• Modification of successional patterns
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

Invasiveness

• Abundant in its native range
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Fast growing
• Has a broad native range
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Long lived
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Reproduces asexually
• Tolerant of shade
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc

Likelihood of entry/control

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

C. caeruleum has been widely cultivated as a cover-crop and green manure crop. It is also planted as a pioneer species and as a nitrogen fixing species to reduce erosion and improve soil fertility (Cook et al., 2005).  

Uses List

Environmental

• Agroforestry
• Soil conservation
• Soil improvement

Materials

• Green manure

Prevention and Control

On C. caeruleum growing as a weed, poor control was achieved when mature plants were sprayed with various rates of metsulfuron, glyphosate, paraquat, or paraquat + diuron. Combinations of metsulfuron + glyphosate or paraquat, however, have achieved effective control four weeks after application (Cook et al., 2005). The herbicide fosamine also provides excellent suppression of C. caeruleum for 8-12 weeks when applied to reduce competition in planting sites for rubber and oil palm. Efficacy depends on vigour of the weed at application (Cook et al., 2005). 

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2005. Vines and climbing plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 51:483 pp.

Atlas of Living Australia, 2015. Atlas of Living Australia. http://bie.ala.org.au/

Choe YK, 1983. Establishment of Legume cover crops on flat land. Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia. Planters Bulletin, 177.

Choe YK, 1985. Vegetative propagation of Caloposonium caeruleum. Proceedings of International Rubber Conference, Kuala Lumpur.

Choe YK, Chin TV, Rashid A, 1979. Legume seeds in rubber cultivation. Proceedings. Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Planters Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 1979.

Choe YK, Liu S, Rosley A, 1981. Legume cover crops and weed control in rubber smallholdings. Proceedings Smallholders Social and Economic Conference, University of Agriculture, Serdang, Malaysia.

Cook BG, Pengelly BC, Brown SD, Donnelly JL, Eagles DA, Franco MA, Hanson J, Partridge IJ, Peter M, Schultze-Kraft R, 2005. Tropical Forages: an interactive selection tool. Brisbane, Australia: CSIRO, DPI&F, CIAT, ILRI. http://www.tropicalforages.info/

FAO, 2014. Grassland species profiles. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/Default.htm

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Hancock IR, Henderson CP, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, No. 7. Honiara, Solomon Islands ii + 203 pp.

ILDIS, 2014. International Legume Database and Information Service. Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/

Jewtragoon P, Topak-Ngam A, 1985. Factors effecting growth and seed production of Calopogonium caeruleum. Proceedings of International Rubber Conference, Kuala Lumpur.

Lima HC, 2013. Calopogonium in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil ([English title not available]). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB22853

Middleton CH, Mellor W, 1982. Grazing assessment of the tropical legume Calopogonium caeruleum. Tropical Grasslands, 16(4):213-216.

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al., 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.

PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf

Starr F, Starr K, Loope LL, 2003. New plant records from the Hawaiian Archipelago. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2001-2002. Part 2: Notes. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 74:23-34. http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pdf/op74.pdf

Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. J.T. Swarbrick, Weed Science Consultancy, 131 pp.

Tan KH, Pusharajah E, 1976. Calopogonium caeruleum on shade-tolerant leguminous cover for rubber. Proceedings of Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Planters Conference, Kuala Lumpur.

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Contributors

25/11/14 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps

• = Present, no further details
• = Evidence of pathogen
• = Widespread
• = Last reported
• = Localised
• = Presence unconfirmed
• = Confined and subject to quarantine
• = See regional map for distribution within the country
• = Occasional or few reports

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