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Datasheet

Ceroplastes ceriferus (Indian wax scale)

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 05 October 2015
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Pest
  • Natural Enemy
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Ceroplastes ceriferus
  • Preferred Common Name
  • Indian wax scale
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Arthropoda
  •             Subphylum: Uniramia
  •                 Class: Insecta
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    compend@cabi.org
  • Distribution mapMore information

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Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Ceroplastes ceriferus (Fabricius, 1798)

Preferred Common Name

  • Indian wax scale

Other Scientific Names

  • Ceroplastes australiae Walker, 1852
  • Ceroplastes cerifera (Fabricius) Gill, 1988
  • Ceroplastes ceriferens (Anderson) De Lotto, 1965
  • Ceroplastes ceriferus (Anderson) Signoret, 1869
  • Ceroplastes vayssierei Mahdihassan, 1933
  • Coccus (Ceroplastes) chilensis Gray, 1828
  • Coccus ceriferus Fabricius, 1798
  • Columnea cerifera (Fabricius) Targioni Tozzetti, 1866
  • Columnea chilensis (Gray) Targioni Tozzetti, 1866
  • Gascardia cerifera (Anderson)
  • Lacca alba Signoret; Signoret, 1869

International Common Names

  • English: Indian white wax scale; Japanese wax scale; wax scale, Indian; wax scale, Japanese

Local Common Names

  • Germany: Indische wachs-schildlaus; Schildlaus, Indische Wachs-
  • USA: Chinese wax scale; Mexican wax scale

EPPO code

  • CERPCE (Ceroplastes ceriferus)

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Metazoa
  •         Phylum: Arthropoda
  •             Subphylum: Uniramia
  •                 Class: Insecta
  •                     Order: Hemiptera
  •                         Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
  •                             Superfamily: Coccoidea
  •                                 Family: Coccidae
  •                                     Genus: Ceroplastes
  •                                         Species: Ceroplastes ceriferus

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

CountryDistributionLast ReportedOriginFirst ReportedInvasiveReferencesNotes

ASIA

CambodiaPresentEPPO, 2014; NHM, 1968
ChinaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-GuizhouPresentLai, 1993
-Hong KongPresentNHM, 1990
-ZhejiangPresentXu & Li, 1991
IndiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-AssamPresentAli, 1971
-BiharPresentAli, 1971
-Himachal PradeshPresentNHM, 1991
-KarnatakaPresentSivaramakrishnan, 1986
-KeralaPresentNHM, 1990
-Madhya PradeshPresentAli, 1971
-Tamil NaduPresentAvasthi & Shafee, 1986; EPPO, 2014
-Uttar PradeshPresentNHM, 1976
-West BengalPresentNHM, 1973
IndonesiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-JavaPresentNHM, pre-1940
JapanPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-HonshuPresentItioka & Inoue, 1991
MalaysiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-Peninsular MalaysiaPresentNHM, 1954
MyanmarPresentNHM, 1982
PhilippinesPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Sri LankaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
TaiwanPresentAli, 1971; EPPO, 2014
ThailandPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
VietnamPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014

AFRICA

MalawiPresentEPPO, 2014; NHM, 1929
TanzaniaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
UgandaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014

NORTH AMERICA

MexicoPresentEPPO, 2014
USAPresentEPPO, 2014
-AlabamaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-ArkansasPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-CaliforniaEradicatedEPPO, 2014
-District of ColumbiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; NHM, 1964
-FloridaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-GeorgiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-IllinoisPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-LouisianaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-MarylandPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-MississippiPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-New JerseyPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-New YorkPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-North CarolinaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-OhioPresentKosztarab, 1996
-OklahomaPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-PennsylvaniaPresentKosztarab, 1996
-South CarolinaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-TennesseePresentBen-Dov, 1993
-TexasPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-VirginiaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
-WashingtonPresentEPPO, 2014

CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN

GuadeloupePresentEPPO, 2014
JamaicaPresentEPPO, 2014
PanamaPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Puerto RicoPresentEPPO, 2014
United States Virgin IslandsPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014

SOUTH AMERICA

BrazilPresentEPPO, 2014
ChilePresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014

EUROPE

ItalyRestricted distributionEPPO, 2014
NetherlandsAbsent, intercepted onlyEPPO, 2014
SloveniaAbsent, intercepted onlyEPPO, 2014; Seljak, 2012

OCEANIA

AustraliaPresentEPPO, 2014
-New South WalesPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-QueenslandPresentBen-Dov, 1993
-Western AustraliaPresentQin & Gullan, 1994
Cook IslandsPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
FijiPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
GuamPresentBen-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
New CaledoniaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
New ZealandPresentEPPO, 2014
PalauPresentEPPO, 2014
Papua New GuineaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
TongaPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
VanuatuPresentWilliams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014

Host plants/Plants Affected

Top of page
Plant nameFamilyContext
Abutilon indicum (country mallow)MalvaceaeOther
Acer palmatum (Japanese maple)AceraceaeOther
Amaranthus (amaranth)AmaranthaceaeOther
Artemisia (wormwoods)AsteraceaeOther
Berberis (barberries)BerberidaceaeOther
Betula pendula (common silver birch)BetulaceaeOther
Buxus sempervirens (common boxwood)BuxaceaeOther
Camellia sinensis (tea)TheaceaeMain
Chaenomeles japonica (Japanese quince)RosaceaeOther
CitrusRutaceaeOther
Coffea (coffee)RubiaceaeOther
Crataegus (hawthorns)RosaceaeOther
Cucurbita (pumpkin)CucurbitaceaeOther
DeutziaHydrangeaceaeOther
Dimocarpus longan (longan tree)SapindaceaeOther
Diospyros kaki (persimmon)EbenaceaeOther
EucalyptusMyrtaceaeOther
EugeniaMyrtaceaeOther
Euonymus (spindle trees)CelastraceaeOther
Fatsia japonica (Japanese aralia)AraliaceaeOther
FicusMoraceaeOther
GardeniaRubiaceaeOther
Ilex (Holly)AquifoliaceaeOther
Lagerstroemia indica (Indian crape myrtle)LythraceaeOther
MagnoliaMagnoliaceaeOther
Malus sylvestris (crab-apple tree)RosaceaeOther
Mangifera indica (mango)AnacardiaceaeOther
Morus alba (mora)MoraceaeOther
Nephelium lappaceum (rambutan)SapindaceaeOther
PerseaLauraceaeOther
Persea americana (avocado)LauraceaeOther
Piper (pepper)PiperaceaeOther
PittosporumPittosporaceaeOther
Platanus (planes)PlatanaceaeOther
PodocarpusPodocarpaceaeOther
Populus deltoides (poplar)SalicaceaeMain
Prunus (stone fruit)RosaceaeOther
Pteridium esculentumDennstaedtiaceaeOther
Pyracantha coccinea (Scarlet firethorn)RosaceaeOther
Rhododendron (Azalea)EricaceaeOther
Rhus succedaneaAnacardiaceaeOther
Salix (willows)SalicaceaeOther
Tamarix (tamarisk)TamaricaceaeOther
Vaccinium arboreum (Tree huckleberry)EricaceaeOther
ViburnumCaprifoliaceaeOther
Ziziphus jujuba (common jujube)RhamnaceaeOther

Growth Stages

Top of pageFlowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

List of Symptoms

Top of page
SignLife StagesType

Fruit

honeydew or sooty mould

Growing point

external feeding

Leaves

abnormal colours
abnormal leaf fall
external feeding
honeydew or sooty mould
internal feeding
wilting

Stems

discoloration of bark
external feeding
honeydew or sooty mould

Whole plant

external feeding

Natural Enemies

Top of page
Natural enemyTypeLife stagesSpecificityReferencesBiological control inBiological control on
Anicetus beneficusParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Anicetus ceroplastisParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Anicetus rarisetusParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Anicetus zhejiangensisParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Chilocorus kuwanaePredatorAdults/Nymphs
Coccophagus lycimniaParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Eublemma scitulaPredatorAdults/Nymphs
Microterys australicusParasiteAdults/Nymphs
Scutellista caeruleaPredatorEggs

References

Top of page

Ali SM, 1971. A catalogue of the Oriental Coccoidea (Part V) (Insecta: Homoptera: Coccoidea). Indian Museum Bulletin, 6:7-82.

Avasthi RK, Shafee SA, 1986. Species of Ceroplastinp (Homoptera: Coccidae) from India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 83(2):327-338

Ben-Dov Y, 1993. A systematic catalogue of the soft scale insects of the world (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) with data on geographical distribution, host plants, biology and economic importance. Gainesville, USA: Sandhill Crane Press, Inc., 536 pp.

Boratynski KL, Williams DJ, 1964. Coccoidea. In: Kloet GS, Hinks WD, eds. Checklist of British Insects. 2nd ed. Handbook for the Identification of British Insects, 11:87-94.

Carnero Hernandez A, Perez Guerra G, 1986. Coccids (Homoptera: Coccoidea) of the Canary Islands. Comunicaciones I.N.I.A., Proteccion Vegetal, No. 25:85pp.

De Lotto G, 1971. On some genera and species of wax scales (Homoptera: Coccidae). Journal of Natural History, 5(2):133-153

EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm

Gimpel WF, Miller DR, Davidson JA, 1974. A systematic revision of the wax scales, genus Ceroplastes, in the United States (Homoptera; Coccoidea; Coccidae). Maryland, USA: University of Maryland, Agricultural Experiment Station, Miscellaneous Publication 841, 1-85.

Green EE, 1921. Observations on British Coccidae: with descriptions of new species. VII Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 57:257-259.

Hamon AB, Williams ML, 1984. The soft scale insects of Florida (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas, 11:1-94.

Itioka T, Inoue T, 1991. Settling-site selection and survival of two scale insects, Ceroplastes rubens and C. ceriferus, on citrus trees. Researches on Population Ecology, 33(1):69-85

Kawai S, 1980. Scale Insects of Japan in Colours. Tokyo, Japan: National Agriculture Education Association, 455 pp.

Kosztarab M, 1996. Scale Insects of North Eastern North America: identification, biology, and distribution. Martinsville, USA: Virginia Museum of Natural History, 650 pp.

Kuwana SI, 1923. Descriptions and biology of new or little-known coccids from Japan. Department of Agriculture of Commercial Importance. Plant Quarantine Bulletin, 3:1-67.

Lai CB, 1993. Study on the bionomics of Ceroplastes ceriferus Anderson in tea gardens and its control. Entomological Knowledge, 30(6):337-338

Lindinger L, 1911. Afrikanische SchildlSuse. IV. Kanarische Cocciden. Ein Beitrag zur Fauna der Kanarischen Inseln. Jahrbuch der Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Anstalten, 28:1-38.

Nash RF, 1973. Control of the peony scale, Pseudaonidia paeoniae, and a wax scale, Ceroplastes ceriferus, with granular systemic insecticides on Camellia japonica. Journal of the Georgia Entomological Society, 8(2):149-151

Qin TK, Gullan PJ, 1994. Taxonomy of the wax scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae: Ceroplastinae) in Australia. Invertebrate Taxonomy, 8(4):923-959

Seljak G, 2012. Six new alien phytophagous insect species recorded in Slovenia in 2011. Acta Entomologica Slovenica, 20(1):31-44. http://www2.pms-lj.si/biblioteka/acta_entomologica.html

Sivaramakrishnan VR, 1986. Ceroplastes ceriferus Anderson (Homoptera: Coccidae) a new pest of poplars. Indian Journal of Forestry, 9(4):353-354

Smith D, 1973. Insect pests of avocados. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 99(12):645-653

Smith FF, Oba AK, McComb CW, Weidhass JA, 1971. Development and control of a wax-scale, Ceroplastes ceriferus. Journal of Economic Entomology, 64:889-893.

Tang FT, 1991. The Coccidae of China. Taiyuan, China: Shanxi United Universities Press.

Williams DJ, Watson GW, 1990. The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific region. Part 3: the soft scales (Coccidae) and other families. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 267 pp.

Xu ZH, Li XL, 1991. A new species of the genus Anicetus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from China. Entomotaxonomia, 13(3):219-221

Distribution Maps

Top of page
Distribution map Australia: Present
EPPO, 2014Australia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryAustralia
See regional map for distribution within the countryBrazil: Present
EPPO, 2014Cook Islands: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Chile: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014China: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014China: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014China
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryChina
See regional map for distribution within the countryFiji: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Guadeloupe: Present
EPPO, 2014Guam: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Indonesia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014India
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryIndia
See regional map for distribution within the countryItaly: Restricted distribution
EPPO, 2014Jamaica: Present
EPPO, 2014Jamaica: Present
EPPO, 2014Japan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Japan
See regional map for distribution within the countryCambodia: Present
EPPO, 2014Sri Lanka: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Myanmar: PresentMalawi: Present
EPPO, 2014Mexico: Present
EPPO, 2014Mexico: Present
EPPO, 2014Malaysia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Malaysia
See regional map for distribution within the countryNew Caledonia: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014New Zealand: Present
EPPO, 2014Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Papua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Papua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Philippines: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Philippines: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Puerto Rico: Present
EPPO, 2014Puerto Rico: Present
EPPO, 2014Palau: Present
EPPO, 2014Palau: Present
EPPO, 2014Thailand: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Tonga: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Taiwan: Present
Ali, 1971; EPPO, 2014Taiwan: Present
Ali, 1971; EPPO, 2014Tanzania: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Uganda: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014USA: Present
EPPO, 2014USA: Present
EPPO, 2014USA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUSA
See regional map for distribution within the countryUnited States Virgin Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Vietnam: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Vanuatu: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
  • = Present, no further details
  • = Evidence of pathogen
  • = Widespread
  • = Last reported
  • = Localised
  • = Presence unconfirmed
  • = Confined and subject to quarantine
  • = See regional map for distribution within the country
  • = Occasional or few reports
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Distribution map (asia) China: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Guizhou: Present
Lai, 1993Hong Kong: PresentZhejiang: Present
Xu & Li, 1991Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Java: PresentIndia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Assam: Present
Ali, 1971Bihar: Present
Ali, 1971Himachal Pradesh: PresentKerala: PresentKarnataka: Present
Sivaramakrishnan, 1986Madhya Pradesh: Present
Ali, 1971Tamil Nadu: Present
Avasthi & Shafee, 1986; EPPO, 2014Uttar Pradesh: PresentWest Bengal: PresentJapan: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Honshu: Present
Itioka & Inoue, 1991Cambodia: Present
EPPO, 2014Sri Lanka: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Myanmar: PresentMalaysia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Peninsular Malaysia: PresentPapua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Philippines: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Palau: Present
EPPO, 2014Thailand: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Taiwan: Present
Ali, 1971; EPPO, 2014Vietnam: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Distribution map (europe) Italy: Restricted distribution
EPPO, 2014
Distribution map (africa) Malawi: Present
EPPO, 2014Tanzania: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Uganda: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Distribution map (north america) Jamaica: Present
EPPO, 2014Mexico: Present
EPPO, 2014Puerto Rico: Present
EPPO, 2014USA: Present
EPPO, 2014Alabama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Arkansas: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014District of Columbia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Florida: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Georgia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Illinois: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Louisiana: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Maryland: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Mississippi: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993North Carolina: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014New Jersey: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014New York: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Ohio: Present
Kosztarab, 1996Oklahoma: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Pennsylvania: Present
Kosztarab, 1996South Carolina: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Tennessee: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Texas: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Virginia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Washington: Present
EPPO, 2014
Distribution map (central america) Guadeloupe: Present
EPPO, 2014Jamaica: Present
EPPO, 2014Mexico: Present
EPPO, 2014Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Puerto Rico: Present
EPPO, 2014USA: Present
EPPO, 2014Florida: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014United States Virgin Islands: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Distribution map (south america) Brazil: Present
EPPO, 2014Chile: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Panama: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014
Distribution map (pacific) Australia: Present
EPPO, 2014New South Wales: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Queensland: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993Western Australia: Present
Qin & Gullan, 1994Cook Islands: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014China: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Fiji: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Guam: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Indonesia: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014New Caledonia: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014New Zealand: Present
EPPO, 2014Papua New Guinea: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Philippines: Present
Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Palau: Present
EPPO, 2014Tonga: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014Taiwan: Present
Ali, 1971; EPPO, 2014Vanuatu: Present
Williams & Watson, 1990; Ben-Dov, 1993; EPPO, 2014